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I UNITED STATES OF AMER1CA.| | 



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REPORT OF WORK 



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MiDDLETOWN, CONN,, 



1877-8. 



REPORT OF WORK 



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.xpmment ^t«twtt. 



MIDDLETOWN, CONN., 



1877-8, 



VITH AN ACCOUNT OF 



. FIELD EXPERIMENTS WITH FERTILIZERS. 



BY 

PROF. W. O. ATWATER 



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Taken (in part) from the Report of the Secretary of the Conn. Board of 
Agriculture for 1878. 



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HARTFORD : -— -- 

PRESS OF THE CASE, LOCKWOOD & BRAINARD COMPANY. 

1879. 



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REPORT OF WORK 

OF THE 

AGKICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 

MIDDLETOWN, CONN. 



In presenting this report by direction of the Board of Trustees of Wes- 
leyan University, the following brief explanations are proper. 

An account of the origin and first year's labors of the Connecticut 
Agricultural Experiment Station was given in the Report of the State 
Board of Agriculture for 1876. The earnest efforts of the friends of the 
enterprise had impressed the people of the State with the value of such 
afi institution, but the idea was a novel one, and a bill pi'oviding an 
appropriation for the purpose had been deferred by the Legislature of 
1874, only to be rejected by that of 1875. Believing that a concrete 
example of what an experiment station might do would lead to success 
in securing one, an enthusiastic friend of the cause offered to become 
responsible for part of the expense on condition that the Legislature 
should promise means for making a start, which it accordingly did.* 

The labor of organizing and conducting the Station was materially 
alleviated by the united and cordial cooperation of the original pro- 
moters of the enterprise, and by the encouragement it received from the 
public. 

In due time a bill was presented to the Legislature of 1877, providing 
for the permanent establishment of the Station. The fact that, notwith- 
standing the loud call for economy, the cutting down of old apjjro- 
priations, and the utter refusal of new ones, a bill appropriating $5,000 
per annum, permanently and unconditionally "to promote agriculture 
by scientific investigation and experiment," passed both branches of 
the Legislature unanimously, and with no essential alteration from the 

* The offer was made by Mr. Orange Judd of Middletown, on his own part, of $1,000 
toward the payment of expenses, and in behalf of the Trustees of Wesleyan University, of 
free use of laboratories and appliances in the Hall of Natural Sciences, donated by him to 
that institution, and, pro\'ided the Legislature would appropriate $2,800 per annum for 
two years, to carry on work appropriate to an Agricultural Experiment Station. A bill for 
the purpose was passed unanimously by the Legislature of 18*75, thus giving to Connecticut 
the honor of establishing the first Agricultural Experiment Station in America. 



orifjinal ilrnft propnsed hy the dinrtor iind approvoil l)y the advisory 
ooininittec, save sucli as was iiccdeil to give it legal form, was to all con- 
cerned a source of great satisfaction. 

This part of the trust having been thus fulHIled, and the direction 
of (he enterjirise placed in older and aliler hands, nothing farther re- 
mained hut to give an account of the work not yet piildished. 

To aid in ilefraying the expenses of preparing this for puhlieation an 
appropriation of two hundred and fifty dollars was generously made In 
the State Hoard of Agriculture, which has also incorporated the material 
in its report for 1878. Some of the details, Jiowever, especially pages 
111-122, and chapter XI, for which the limits of that re|)ortdid not ])ro- 
vide space, appear for tlie first time here. 

There are presented herewith the hitherto uni»ui)lishetl work of the 
Station proper, and other work which has grown out of it. That this 
has not been inconsiderable is evinced by the fact that the chemical 
analyses alone have involved over 1,(500 quantitative determinations. 
As this report is intended for farmers, in accordance with the wish of 
the Board, much of the more abstract and technical matter has been 
ref(!rred to briefly, and the details reserved for j)ublieation elsewhere, 
their place being filled by explanations and practical applications. 

A larger proportion of purely scientific research would have been 
preferable had not the first purpose, that of securing means for scientific 
investigation and experiment, demanded work of a more j)opular 
character. 

The task of which this and the previous report give account was 
accej)ted by the writer with extreme reluctance, not because of lack of 
interest in the cause, but because he felt that it belonged to one of more 
experience, and because his regular duties as professor of chemistry in 
the College were sufficient to demand all his time and energy, an<l made 
it impracticable to carry on so important an enterprise satisfactorily. 
Nor can any other excuse be oflered for the many imi)erfectioiis in the 
execution of the work. 

Besides Messrs. E. II. Jenkins, G. Waniecke, and AV. Balentine, the 
chemists employed by the Station, Mr. A. T. Neale, Instructor, and 
Mr. C. D. Woods, student in the University, liave rendered most valuable 
aid. I am particularly indebted to Mr. W. II. Jordan for wise and 
skillful assistance in preparing the work for publication. 

W. O. ATWATER. 

Director. 

Chemical Laboratory, Wcsleyan University. 



CONTENTS 



I. Analyses of Coimmercial Fertilizers, . . 9 

Nitroo;enous Fertilizers : 

Nitrate of Soda, Sulphate of Aininoiiia, Dried Blood, 9 

Fish Manures, Peruvian Guano, . 9, 10 

Phosphatic Fertilizers : 

Bone, Superphosphates, . 1 0, 1 1 

Potash Salts, Plaster, . .12 

II. Fertilizers — Natural Products'. 

Hen Manure, Closet Earth. .13 

Rockweed, . . .15 
Miscellaneous : 

Lysimeter Water, . . .17 

Ash of Apples, . .18 

III. Analyses of Foods and Feeding Stuffs. 

Analytical methods, . .20 

Wheat and Milling Products, . .22 

New Process Flour, . . . .23 

Bran. Middlings, and Flours, . .25 

Rice Meal, Barley Meal, Rye Bran, Oats, . ■ . 27 

Indian Corn and Cobs, .28 

Timothy Gi'ass and Hay — Amount of yield, and compo- 
sition at different periods of growth, . . 29 
Clover Grass and Hay — Amount and composition at dif- 
ferent periods of growth, . . . .31 

Hungarian Grass and Hay — Amount and composition 

at different periods of growth, .32 

Fodder Corn, ...... 35 

Oat and Rye Straw, . . . .36 

Linseed, Cotton-seed and Palm-nut Meals, Starch waste, 

and Brewers' Grains, . . . .37 

Dried Blood, Meat Scrap, and Dry Ground Fish, . 38 

Apples, ....... 39 

IV. Experiments on Growth of Plants in Sand, . 40 



V. lNVK8Tr<;ATION8 0F R0OT8 OF Cl-OVKK, TiMOTHY, WllKAT 

ANI> HaIM.KV, ..... 

Aiinuiiit of roots, stubble, I'tc, !<■(» in M»il by plantK, 
Tabular statement of resultfi, 

Composition of roots of wheat, timntliy, aii<l clnvcr, 
Analyses of soils trom which roots were taken, 
Summary olOljsi'rvations on mots, 
()l)servations liy Di'. V^uiilckei, 
Observations by Dr. Weiskc, . 
Conclusions, . . . • . 

Methods of Analysis and Analytical Details, 

VI. Notes on Amounts ok Watku in Amkkican Fkkdinm 

Stuffs, ...... 

Timothy Grass and Hay, 

Water in timothy at diilV-rent periods of {growth, 

Water in clover at dilferenl periods of <;rowth, 

Huni;arian and Koddir Corn, 

American and European products compared, 

VTI. Investigations of Seeds, 

VIII. Notes on Analytical Methods and Ari'AitAxus. 
The (quantitative estimation of fats, 
Estimation of moisture, .... 

IX. Rei'okt on Fakm Experiments with Fektilizeks, 
Purpose of the experiments, 
The fertilizers used, .... 

Plans lor the exj)eriments, 
Experiments ibr testing soils, 

The " natural strength " of the soil to be tested. 
Experiments to test especially the action of fertilizers. 
The experiments to be carried through several years, 
Experiments for obtaining more general iidbrination, 
Directions for the experiments, . 
How the work was done. Experiments of Mr. Barthol 

omew, Mr. Sage, and Prof. Farrington, 
The Reports and their value. Failures and successes, 

Indecisive results on rich soils, 

Irregularities in reports. 
Experiments of 1877, .... 
General results of experiments, ... 

Soils in which superpliosphate was especially efficient 

Soils that responded to potash salts, . 

Cases in which all the fertilizers failed, 

Specific effects of the different fertilizing materials on 

different soils, . . . . . 



r.i, 



58, 



GO, 



42 
45 

4r, 

47 

47 

i;t 

51 
52 
54 

57 
59 
59 
(50 

(il 
02 

64 

65 

65 
66 
67 
68 
68 
69 
70 
71 
71 
72 

,77 
78 
79 
80 
81 
82 
82 
82 
87 

87 



X. 



XI. 



Nitrate of soda, superphosphate, plaster, muriate of 

potash, complete fertilizer, . 
Variations with kind of soil and kind of crop, 
General conclusions, .... 
Table I. Results of experiments with corn, 
Table II. Results with potatoes, roots, and other crops 
Table III. Table of differences, showing specific effects 

of fertilizing materials, ... 

Fertilizers for Corn, 

The feeding capacity of the corn plant, 

Mr. Harris and Mr. Lawes on fertilizers for corn, 

Mr. Lawes' recipe and the Ville and Stockbridge formu 

las for corn, ..... 
Corn and nitrogen supply, 
Special experiments with nitrogenous fertilizers for corn, 98-1 03 
Summary of effects of nitrogenous fertilizers upon corn, 103 
Table IV. Results of experiments with nitrogenous fer- 
tilizers for corn, 
General results of experiments with corn. 
Special effects of phosphoric acid, potash, and nitrogen 

on corn, .... 
General inferences. 

Effects of different fertilizers on quality of corn. 
Ratio of stalks to shelled corn, . 
The experiments and corn formulas. 
Chemical corn culture. 
Details of the experiments, 

Some Remarks on Farm Experiments with Fer 
tilizers, ..... 

Experiments for testing soils, 

Experiments to gain knowledge of general principles, 
Suggestions for systematic experiments — Plans, 
What ought to be known in advance, 
How to conduct the experiments, 

Fodder Materials and the Feeding of Stock, 

Use of food in animal body. 

Fundamental principle in economical feeding, . 
Digestibility of foods, .... 

Digestibility of hays, .... 

Co-efficients of digestibility, 

Coarse vs. concentrated food — Digestive capacities of 
different animals. 

Effect of curing, boiling, steaming, etc., upon digesti- 
bility, ...... 



108, 



88-91 
91 
91 
85 
87 

89 

92 

82 

92,93 

96,97 
97 



99 
104 

105 
106 
106 
107 
109 
109 
111 



123 
124 
126 
127 

128 
128 

130 
131 
132 
133 
34-137 
135 

137 

139 



8 



Digestion of mixed rations — Ratio of albuminoids to carbo- 
hydrates, ..... 
Functions of food infjredients, 

I'iXperimcnts on the formation of flesh and fat in th 
body- K('sj>irati(in apparatu.s, 

Sources and u.'^cs of :ill>uminoids, carI)ohydrates, and fits 
in the body, .... 

Food mixtures and rations, 

Ration.s for uulcli cows, . 
Elfect of fodder upon milk production, 

Cban<Tes in milk durin<^ the perio<l of lactation, 

General conclusions from experiments in milk produc 
tion, ...... 

General conclusions conccrnin<j; fodder rations. 

Variations in composition of plants of same kind, 

Individual peculiarities of animals, 
Comments on the composition an«l values of sundry feed 
ing stuflis, ..... 

Indian corn and cobs, .... 

Eastern os. Western corn, 

The nutritive value of cobs, 

Western corn shelled vs. Eastern corn with cobs, 

Hungarian grass and hay, 

Timothy and clover hay, 

Well manured vs. poorly manured crops, 

Value of hays cut at ditlerent periods of growth, 

Cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, palm -nut meal, and bran 

Dried blood, meat scrap, and fish as food for stock, 
The manurial values of nitrogenous foods, 
Raising corn to make manure. 
Conclusions, .... 

ArPENDI.X, ..... 

Explanations of chemical terms, 

Albuminoids, carbohydrates, and fats, — composition and use 

nutrition, .... 

Digestible nutrients of foods. 
Nutritive ratios, .... 

Money values of foods, 
Composition, digestibility, and valuations of European feed 

ing-stuflTs— Wolff's Table, 1879, 
Composition and valuations of some American feeding-stufff 

given in this report, 
Feeding standards for farm animals, . 
Fodder rations for farm animals, 



I. Analyses of Commercial Fertilizers. 

A. FERTILIZERS WHOSE CHIEF VALUABLE INGRE- 
DIENT IS NITROGEN. 

Nos. 217, 221, 225, 233, were from H. J. Baker e^ Bro., 215 
Pearl street, New York. Nos. 249, 250, 251, were from the 
Mapes Formula & Peruvian Guano Co., 158 Front street, New 
York. 

Nitrate of Soda. Sulph. of Ammonia. 





217. 233. 249. 


250. 


Nitrogen, fo guaranteed, 


15.65 15.65 15-16 


20.21^ 


" " found, 


15.89 15.62 15.69 


20.57^ 


" equivalent to ; 


ammonia, 

Dkied Blood. 


24.99^ 




219. 221. 


225. 251. 


Nitrogen guaranteed, 


10.00^* 10.00^ 


10.00^ 10.00^ 


" found, 


8.70^ 11.07^ 


10.95^ 10.05^ 


Equivalent to ammonia. 


10.57^ 13.45^ 
Pish Manures. 


13.29^ 12.21^ 



The two samples below were manufactured and furnislied by 
the Quinnipiac Fertilizer Co., New Haven, Conn. 

No. 203. No. 222. 

Phosphoric acid soluble in water, 

" " " " ammonium citrate, 

" " insoluble, 

Phosphoric acid — Total, 
Nitrogen, 
Equivalent ammonia, 

* Guaranteed 13 per cent, ammonia by parties oflfering the article for sale. Palling 
short of this, it was not accepted. 



Dry Ground 


Acidulated 


Pish Guauo. 


Fish. 




1.76,^ 




2.47^ 




2.86^ 


8.11^ 


7.09^ 


8.24^ 


4.11^ 


10.00^ 


4.995^ 



10 

Peruvian Guanos. 

Sainplfs 243, 244, and 245, wore from the store of Southmayd 
& Gardiner, Middletown. Nos. 259 and 260, were from store of 
the Mapes Foi-inula & Peruvian Guano Company, New York. 



Water 

Orf^jinii' and volatile matters. 
Ash . 

Phos. acid sohible in water.... 

" " ainmoniuDi 

citrate 

Phos. acid insohiltie 

" Total 

Potash 

Nitrogen 

Equivalent ammonia 



No. 1. 






Standard. 


Lobes. 


No. 2. ^ 


245. 


259. 


243. 


244. 


Per cent. 


Total. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


8.06 




10.80 


8.23 


36.76 




28.63 


15.01 


55.18 




fiO.57 


76.76 


3.67 




6.80 


4.01 


4.35 




6.68 


7.81 


3.85 




4.13 


2.12 


11.87 


17.58 


17.61 


14.04 


3.07 




4.23 


2.67 


8.48 


8.42 


4.68 


2.60 


10.29 


10.02 


5.68 


3.16 



Rectified 



260. 



13.07 

1.11 

097 

15.15 

5i.90 
3.62 



The guarantees compare with the analyses as follow: 





245. 


259. 


243. 


244. 


260. 


Phos. acid "solu- 
ble " 


Guar- 
aut'd. 
perct. 


Pound, 
perct. 

3.67 

4.a5 
11.87 
3.07 

8.48 

10.30 


Guar- 
ant'd. 
perct. 


Pound, 
perct. 


Guar- 
ant'd. 
perct. 


Found, 
perct. 

6.80 

6.68 
17.61 
4.2;i 
4.68 

5.68 


Guar- 
ant'd. 
perct. 

iVi.oi) 
2.00 
2.70 

3.25 


Pound, 
perct. 

4.01 

7.81 
14.M 
2.67 
2.60 

3.14 


Guar- 
ant'd. 
perct. 

16.9 


Fou'd. 
perct. 

13.07 


Pho8 acid "avail- 












Plios acid — Total. . 




12.-15 
2.-3 
8.24 

10.00 


17.58 




2.8 
3.4 


15.15 


Potash 








8.24 
10.00 


8.42 
10.02 


4.94 
6.00 


2.90 


Equivalent to am- 


3.52 







Nc 



FERTILIZERS WHOSE CHIEF VALUABLE INGRE- 
DIENT IS PHOSPHORIC ACID. 
Bone- Manures. 
206 was from John Hurd, Bridgeport, Conn. 
213 " J. S. Welles, Hebron, Conn. 

231 " J. O. & E. Smith, S. Canterbury, Conn. 

235 " W. H. Bowker & Co., 43 Chatham st., Boston. 

236 '• Raflerty & Williams, foot of 44th St., N. Y. 
256 " Mapes Formula & Peruvain Guano Co., 158 

Front street, New York. 



11 



No. 239 was from Wahl Bros., Chicago, III. 
by Russel Coe. 



Sample furnished 



Phosphoric Acid, per cent. 



Nitrogen, per cent. 



206, 
213, 
231, 
235, 
236, 
239, 
256, 



No. 

208, 
209, 
214, 

224, 
232, 

208, 
209, 
214, 
224, 
232, 



Guaranteed. 



19.-23. 

24.69 
20.-26. 



Found. 
21.39 

30.07 
22.06 
25.50 
22.69 
23.12 
24.38 



Guaranteed. 


Found. 




4.08 




2.07 




3.78 


3.3-4.5 


3.43 




2.81 


3.54 


3.93 




2.88 



Nitrogenous Phosphates and Superphosphates. 

Name. Manufactured by 

Pine Island Guano, Quinnipiac Fer. Co., N. Haven, Conn. 
Wilson's Superphosphate, Rumford Chem. Works, Prov., R. I. 
Pure Animal Guano, Thompson & Edwards, Chicago. 111. 
Animoniat'd Bone Sup., G. W. Miles, Milford, Conn. 
Mitchell's Superphos., A: Mitchell, New York. 

Oftered for Sale by Sample furnished by 

Quinnipiac Fertilizer Co., H. L. Dudley, President. 

D. C. Augur, Woodbridge, Conn. 
J. S. Welles, Hebron, Conn. 
G. W. Miles. 
Wm. vS. Babcock, Plainfield, Conn. 



Rumford Chem. Works, 

G. W. Miles, 

J. P. Kingsley & Son, 





208. 


209. 


214. 


224. 


232. 


Moisture 

Phos. acid soluble .... 

" reverted 


Per cent. 
28.70 
4.81 
0.25 
0.45 
5.51 


Per cent. 
9.57 
7.27 
1.11 
1.41 
9.79 


Per cent. 
4.10 


Per cent. 

10.37 

9.05 


Percent. 

32.55 

7.23 

11 


" insoluble 


10.79 


2.86 
11.97 
3.13 
3.66 
4.44 


0.43 

7.77 


Total 

Potash 


Nitrogen 


4.20 
5.10 


2.76 
3.35 


5.72 
6.94 


1.84 
2.?4 


J]quivalent amraonia 





Superphosphates (Acid Phosphates). 

Nos. 216, 226, 246, were from H. J. Baker & Bro., 215 Pearl 
street. New York. No. 252 was from Mapes Formula & Peru- 
vian Guano Co., 215 Pearl street. New York. 



12 



PHOSPHORIC ACID. 
SOLUBLK. 



Ineolulile. 


Tt)lal. 


0.36;?; 


15.84^ 




18.91 



No. Guarenteed. Found. Hcv. 

21G. 15^ 15.91j^ 

226, 15;^ 15.78^ 

240, 15^ 15.27^ 0.21^ 

2r)2, 15.ir,^ 18.63 

C. FERTILIZERS WHOSE CHIEF VALUABLE INGRE- 
DIENT IS POTASH. 

Nos. 218 ami 227 were from H. J. liaker & Hro., 215 Pearl 
street, New York. Nos. 234, 253, and 254, were from Mapes 
Formula & Peruvian duano Co., 1.58 Front street, New York. 
No. 202 was from Quinnipiac Fertilizer Co., New Haven, Conn. 

Sulphates. CnLORinES. 

234. 254. 218. 227, 253. 

Potash guaranteed, 44.00 37.00 50.-52^ 50.-52^ 50.-52^ 

found, 43.97 38.57 54.89^ 53.59^ 51.64 

Leopoldshall Kainit. 

202. 

Potash guaranteed, 12.-13^ 

found, 12.30^ 

D. PLASTER. 

Nos. 220 and 223 were offered for sale by S. J. Hall, West 
Meriden, Conn. The samples were brought by P. M. Augur, 
Esq., of Middlefield, Conn. No. 230 was sold by H. J. Baker & 
Bro., New York. 

220. 223. 230. 

"Cauyga "Nova Scotia "Vlnstpr" 

Plaster." Plaster." ' '*'^"^'^- 

Sulphuric Acid, 30.11ji^ 44. 84^^ 40.64j^ 

Corresponding to Pure Gypsum 

(Hydrated Sulph. Lime). 64.74;^ 96.41^ 87.38^ 



13 



II. Fertilizers, Natural Products, and Miscellaneous. 
Hen Manure. 
Two samples, brought by Mr. J. S. A. Baker, in l»elialf of 
the Merideu Connecticut Poultry Club, were described as fol- 
lows: 

"Both were from a hennery 14 by 16 feet, with ground [earth] 
floor." No. 83 "was from a pile that had been lying some four 
months in a bin in which sweepings from under perches and from 
floor were placed. It had been trodden b}^ fowls, and was so hard 
that a hoe penetrated it with diflficulty. Little, if any, smell of 
ammonia had been perceptible." No. 84 was a "fresh sample, as 
taken from under perch, as pure as could be obtained. . . . Have 
noticed tliat this, when loosely thrown into a box, heats, giving off 
very stifling odors of ammonia." 





Hen Manure. 




84. 

Fresh, 
per cent. 


83. 

Sweepings, 
per cent. 


Water 


58.82 
16.24 




43.81 
18.18 





Organic and volatile matters 






0.80 


0.88 


Ash 


24.94 


38.01 






0.62 

0.35 

20.23 


















31.50 











Closet Earth. 

The sample of closet earth of which analysis is given here- 
with was received from Col. G. E. Waring, Jr., of Newport, 
R. I., who describes it as follows: 

" I have on hand about two tons of this material, which I have 
purposely kept, in order to see how often earth (or anthracite coal 
ashes) may be used without . losing its efficiency. The experiment 
was begun six years ago. My whole household has been amply 
provided by two small cart-loads of earth, supplemented by the 
sifted ashes of the kitchen range and furnace. For a long time, 
even those have been carted away — we prefer the old stock, as 
fresh ashes are too dusty. A little of the manure has been used 



14 

on flower-beds, etc., and a little fresh ashes has heeri added, but not 
enough to afTcct the general result. The closets are filled, on an 
average, about six times a year. When the vaults are emptied, 
the product is simply heaped up in a well ventilated cellar, and 
left to dry; the heap is then used as a source of the next supply 
needed. The whole amount is enough to fill the reservoirs three 
or four times, iind I estimate that the material now on hand has 
passed through the closet ten ftme.s. The closets have Iteen 
xxsed — at a moderate average — by four grown- persons for six 
years. It is estimated that the solid (dry) matter voided in a year 
by an adult is, in the faeces, 23 lbs., and in the urine 34 lbs. As- 
suming that one-third of the urine was voided into the closets, 
the total dry matter would be about 34 lbs. yearly, for each 
person, making a total, for 4 persons and 6 years, of over 800 
lbs. So far as can be judged by its appearance and smell, it is 
precisely the same as when first prepared for use — a dry mixture 
of earth and ashes, say one part of the former and three parts of 
the latter. It has the same apparent effect in the closets that it 
had at the outset. Neither the eye, the nose, nor the hand can 
detect any change from its original condition." 

Of course the data arc not such as to allow accurate calculations, 
but it is clear that the organic matter, shown by the analysis, must 
be but a fraction of the whole that the earth had received. Col. 
Waring has suggested that this loss of organic matter, and with it 
nitrogen, is due to oxidation accompanied by the escape of nitro- 
gen in the free state. This supposition is fully in accord with the 
observed facts of nitrification of organic nitrogen, by agency of 
organic ferments or otherwise, to nitric acid, and the further 
deoxidation of the resulting nitrates and escape of free nitrogen. 
Thus Schlossing and Miintz have shown that organized ferments 
in sewage cause the oxidation of organic nitrogen, and Schhissing 
has also proven that nitrates undergo deoxidation in the soil with 
the loss of their nitrogen in the free state. 

This sample of closet earth, like others analyzed elsewhere, has 
considerable manurial value, but not enough to warrant the claims 
that have sometimes been made for the material as a fertilizer. 
But Col. Waring's facts, the not repulsive appearance of the 
material, and the analysis, are all in favor of the utiHty and effi- 
ciency of the earth closet system, for the purposes for which it is 
intended. It disposes of the refuse of the household in a cleanly, 
wholesome, and innocuous manner. 



. 15 

CLOSET EARTH. 72. 

Per cent. 

Water, - - - - - - - 1.31 

Organic and volatile matters, - - - - 10.72 

Phosphoric acid, - - - - - - 0.37 

Potash, - ,. - - - - - - 0.33 

Nitrogen, ------- 0.28 

RocKWEED No. M. 2. 

Sample brought by Everett Spicer of Groton Bank, Con- 
necticut. 

" From a lot weighing, when taken from water, 200 tons. It 
had been worked over seven or eight times, and had dried down 
to 40 tons." 

Per cent. 

Moisture, - - * - - - - 22.35 

Organic and volatile matters, - - - 57.90 

Ash (crude), - - - - - 19.75 

100.00 
Nitrogen, ------ 0.99 

Equivalent to ammonia, - - - - 1.20 

Phosphoric acid, - - - - - 0.32 

Potash, - - - - . - 2.65 

Soda, . - . . - 3.64 

RocKWEED (^Fucus nodosus). No. M. 1. 

Sample furnished by O. S. Brainard of Haddam, Conn. The 
sample M. 2. above reported had lain for some time and been 
worked over to prepare it for use as a fertilizer. This was a 
fresh sample of rockweed with no foreign admixture. 

One-half bushel weighed when fresh 19 lbs., when brought to 
the laboratory, 17 lbs. 7 oz. 

Analysis by Mr. Jenkins gave : 
Water, .---.-- 80.47 

Organic matter, - - - - 15.01 

Ash, -.-.-.- 4.52 

Nitrogen, ------ 0.341 



16 



The ash gave on analysis : 





t'HlIDE A 


SH, One IltNDKKl) 

Parts. 


Pure ApIi, 

i. e., 
free from 

Wilier. 
Carbonic 
Acid, and 

Com. 


Reckon Ki> on 
Kkesh Scbktanc*. 




A. 


B. 


.\verago. 


Crude 
•Ash. 


Pure 
Anil. 


Coal . . . 


0.70 

2.78 

0.45 

6.94 

7.38 

12.38 

23.68 

23.42 

16.74 

1.50 

3.22 

5.02 


0.72 

2.85 

0.45 

6.96 

7.39 

12.47 

23.46 

23.48 

16.74 

1.52 

3.27 

5.04 


0.71 

2.81 

0.45 

6.95 

7.39 

12.43 

23.56 

23.45 

16.74 

1.51 

3.25 

5.03 








Insoluble matters 

Iron and alumina 

Lime 


3.09 

0.49 

7.63 

8.12 

13.65 

25.S9 

25.76 

18.39 

1.66 


0.138 

0.022 

0.33 

0.349 

0.588 

1.118 

1.112 

0.786 

0.075 


0.1334 
0.0211 
0.3251 




0.3506 


Potash 


0.5894 


Soda 


1.1180 


Sulphuric acid 

Chlorine 

Phosphoric acid 

Carbonic acid 

Water 


1.1123 
0.7940 
0.0717 


















Oxygen ratio of CI. . . 


104.21 
3.77 


104.35 
3.77 


104.28 
3.77 


104.68 
4.14 


4.518 


4 5156 








100.44 


100.58 


100.51 


100.54 













Summary of Analysis of Rockweed M. 1. 



Water, 

Organic and volatile matters. 

Containing nitrogen, - 

Equivalent ammonia, 

Ash, - - - - 



0.341 
0.414 



80.47 
15.01 



4.52 



ingrb:dients of ash. 



Ash contains of potash, 
" " soda, 

" " lime. 



magnesia, - 
iron and alumina, 
sulphuric acid, 
phosphoric acid, 
chlorine, 



0.590 
1.119 
0.325 
0.351 
0.021 
1.113 
0.072 
0.796 



4.526 



17 



Estimation of Ammonia and Nitric Acid in two samples of 
Lysimeter Water. 

Nos. 1 and 2. Received from Dr. E. L. Sturtevant, South 
Framingliam, Mass. 

" No. 1 was water collected from the Lysimeter May 12th. 
Land had been unmanured for years, and apparently much 
exhausted. May 14th the chemicals sufficient for 160 bush- 
els of corn were applied. No. 2 consisted of the first two 
gallons of water which ran through, collected November 13th." 

Before proceeding with the analysis Mr. Jenkins tested the 
reliability of the methods with the following results : 

Ammonia, by Miller's method, as described in Kubel's Anleitung 
ziir Untersiichung von Wasser, p. 90. 

.000070 grams N Hj gave .0000725 grams = 103.0^ 
.000045 " " " .0000425 " '• 94.4^ 

.000070 " "• " .0000675 " " 96.4^ 

.000093 " " " .000095 " " 102.7^ 

Nitric Acid, by Schulze's method, Kubel, p. 55. 
.056238 grams N, O^ gave .056850 grams 



.028119 
.028119 
.014059 
.014059 
.007029 



.028078 
.028041 
.013956 
.014073 
.007019 



101.0^ 
99.5^ 
99.7$^ 
99.2^ 

100.1^ 
99.8^ 



Analysis. 

Lysimeter Water No. 1. 

Distilled the ammonia from 500 c. c. and titred. 

First, 50 c. c. distillate gave 0.2 c. c. (NH,) CI. sol. 
Second, " " 0.15 " " " 

Third, " " 0.05 " " " 

0.40 
0.4 c. c. standard (NH^) CI. sol. = .010 m. g. NH3. 
500 c. c. water contains .00001 grams NH3. 
50,000,000 parts of water contain one part NH^j. 
Determined the nitric acid in 500 c. c. of water. 
Obtained 0.36 c. c. of gas, at 24° C. 
Bar. 30.08 in. at 80° = 760. 5 m. m. at 0°. 
. Equivalent to .00077771 grams of N.^ O5. 
3 



18 

500 grams of water contains .00077771 grams N, Oy 

1,000,000 parts of water contain 1.55542 }>arts of nitric o.xytl. 

(j 12.921 parts of water contain one part of nitric oxyd. 
Lysimeter Water No. 2. 

Distilled the ammonia from 100 c. c, diluted to 500 c. c, and 
titred in 50 c. c. 

50 c. c. = 2.1 c. c. (NH^) CI. solution 500 c. c. := 21 c. c. 
(NH,) CI. solution. 

100 grams Lysimeter water = .000525 grams- NH,. 

1,000,000 parts of water contain 5.25 parts NH3. 

190,476 " " 1 part NH^. 

Determined the nitric acid in 500 c. c. of water. 

Obtained 1.1 c. c. of gas at 24° = 1.12 calibrated. 

Bar. 29.76 in. at 84° = 752 m. m. at 0°. 

Equivalent to .002379 grams Nj O5. 

500 grams of water contain .002379 grams N^ O5. 

1,000,000 parts of water contain 5.25 parts " • 

210,128 " " 1 part " 

Analysis of Apples, Rhode Island Greenings. 

From P. M. Augur, Esq., of Middlefield, Conn. Examined 
by Mr. Jenkins with following results. 

Selected only sound apples without regard to size. Thirty-hve 
apples weighed 4,276.5 grams, average weight = 122.19 grams. 

The four heaviest weighed The four lightest weighed 

151 grams, 86.5 grams. 

161 " 95. 

163 " . 99. 

166 " 106. 

Several specific gravity determinations were made with the fol- 
lowing results : 

Weight of apple. Specific gravity. 

161.13 0.817 

151.13 0.819 

163.59 0.835 

165.84 0.835 

87.23 0.850 

98.53 . 0.853 

106.83 0.869 

95.50 0.871 ■ 



1 ' 


u 11 


' 


" 10 


9 ' 


" 18 


8 ' 


" 32 


1 ' 


" 42 


6 ' 


" 30 


5 ' 


" 55 


4 ' 


u 4 


3 ' 


" 3 



19 

The stems and seeds were rejected before weighing the portion 
for analysis. 

The seeds in each apple were counted, with the exception of some 
rudimentary ones, not as large as a pin-head. 

1 apple had 12 seeds, = 12 
1 
1 
2 
4 
6 
5 
11 
1 
1 

33 apples, ' 217 = Total No. of seeds. 

Average number of seeds per apple, = 6.57. Two hundred 
and fifteen seeds weighed 5.5951 grams. Average weight of 1 
seed = .026 grams. 

Two sprouting trials were made. At the end of 83 days, 53 
seeds had sprouted in one trial, and 45 in another, = 45^ and 53<!^, 
average =49^ seeds that sprouted. Many seeds still looked fresh, 
but the trial was broken off on account of other work, and the fact 
that they had got quite mouldy. Took for analysis 4373.25 grams 
of apples. Weight after drying 704.3 grams ("air dry"). For 
ash determinations took 585 grams, air-dry substance. Obtained 
10.149 grams ash = 1.73^ ash. 

The ash prepared as above gave in 100 parts — 
Potash, ..-.--. 53.42 

Soda, - - - - , - - - - 0.83 

Lime, -....-. 3.78 

Magnesia, ------- 3.54 

Ferric oxyd, - - - - - - 1.07 

Sulphuric acid, - - - - - - 2.96 

Phosphoric acid, - - - - - - 4.27 

Chlorine, - - - - . - - - 0.46 

Carbonic acid, - - - - - 20.69 

Insoluble matters, - - 1.19 

Charcoal, .... . - 0.09 

Water, -..--- 6.53 

Chlorine equivalent, 



98.73 



20 

0\vin;j; to the small amount of ash. duplicatf analyses couM not 
be mudo, and the limited amount of material which had to he u:-«d 
for the several detenninations accounts foi- the eiror of analysis. 



III. Analyses of Foods and Feeding Stuffs. 
^ Analyses arc given herewith of: 

Wheat, Nos. 1 and II, 2 samples. 

Milling Products of Wheat, Nos. III-X, 8- " 

Oats, Nos. XXIX and XXXI, 2 

Rice Meal, No. XI, 1 

Barley Meal, No. XII, , 1 

Rye Bran, No. XXXVII, 1 

Indian Corn, Nos. XXXII, XL, and XLI, 3 

Corn Cobs, No. XXXIII, 1 

Timothy Hay, Nos. XIII-XVI, • 4 

Clover Hay, Nos. XVII-XX, 4 

Fodder Corn, Nos. XXI-XXIII, 3 

Hungarian Grass, Nos. XXIV-XXVI, 3 

Oat Straw, No. XXXIV, 1 

Rye Straw, No. XLII, 1 

Linseed Cake, No. XXVII, 1 

Cotton Seed Meal, No. XLV, 1 " 

Palm Meal, No. XLVIII, 1 

Dried Blood, No. XLIII, 2 

Meat Scrap, No. XLIV, 2 

Fish Scrap, Nos. XLVl'and L-LV, 7 

Apples, No. XXVIII, 1 

Glen Cove Starch Waste, No. LVI, 1 

Brewer's Grains, No. LVII, 1 -' 

Total number, 52 " 

ANALYTICAL MF/fHODS. 

The analytical methods followed have been such as are in use in 
the Gei'man experiment stations, and are succinctly described in 
Wolff's Aiihitung ztcr Chemischen UtUersuchuiKj Landwirthschaftlich 
Wichtiger Stoffe. Ste. Aufl., 1875. 

Preparation for Analysis. — The materials, when not already fine 



21 

enough, were ground in a mill made for this purpose,* and passed 
through a sieve with eleven, or one with seventeen, meshes to the 
centimeter. Hay, straw, cornstalks, etc., were partially dried 
before grinding. 

Moisture. — The determinations here given were mostly made in 
air, nominally at 100° C, though the actual temperature of the air- 
baths was naturally lower, ranging from 96° to 98°. The deter- 
minations of several samples, as corn, oil-meal, meat-scrap, fish- 
scrap, etc., were made in hydrogen. 

Ash. — From 50 to 150 grams of the substance were slowly 
charred in a platinum capsule, extracted with water, the residue 
ignited until nearly white, the extract added, evaporated, and the 
whole dried, ignited slightly, weighed, thoroughly mixed and 
reserved. A portion was used to determine carbonic acid, gener- 
ally by ignition with potassium anhydrochromate, though some- 
times with the apparatus described by Bunsen {^Fres. Zeitsch., 1871, 
Jf07). By the method used for igniting, the carbon was so com- 
pletely burned that its determination was not deemed necessary. 
In the few cases which seemed to require the estimation of sand and 
other insoluble matters, this was done by extraction with aqua 
regia, and sodium hydrate and carbonate, and weighing the ignited 
residue. 

Crude Protein, Albuminoids. — The nitrogen as determined by 
combustion with soda-lime and titering with standard acid and 
alkali, was multiplied by 6.25 and reckoned as crude protein or 
albuminoids. That this method is not entirely accurate I am very 
well aware. The object of the analyses was to find the comparative 
feeding values, and it was therefore proper to follow, the methods 
ordinarily used in making the analyses with which these are to be 
compared. Had the means at our disposal allowed, we should 
have attempted the determination, in some cases at least, of sulphur 
organic combination, of nitrogen as nitrates, and ammonia, and 
should likewise, especially in the cereal products, have made some 
attempt to study into the. content of non-albuminoid, organic nitro- 
gen compounds, amides, etc.f 

* By Mechanicus Apel, in G(3ttingen, Germany. 

f For illustrations of the importance of this matter, see articles by E. 
Schulze, in the LandwirthschaftlicJie Tahrbuclier, 1877, VI. 157, and G. W. 
Wigner, Analyst, 1878, 288 and 303. (Abstract of latter in the Jour. 
Chem. Soc., 1878, 2d part, p. 1014.) Ammonia and nitric acid occur to 
considerable extent in some plants. For instance, Wulfert found in the- 
dry substance young barley, nitrates corresponding to from 0.9 to 1.07 



22 

Crude fiber was estimated }>y altRrnate extraction with dilute 
sulphuric acid, dilute alkali an«l water, subsequent treatment with 
alcohol and ether, (frying, weighing, determining ash and alhu- 
minoids in separate samples and suljtnu'ting (heir sum from the 
whole. 

Fats were determined by extraction of the dried substance with 
absolute ether. In a number of cases the previous drying was made 
in a current of hydrogen. 

Extractive Matters, or carbohydrates, were estimated by differ- 
ence. The determination of aqueous extract, sugar, starch, gum, 
etc., which would have been interesting, in the cereal products 
especially, could not be done for lack of assistance. 

WHEAT AND MILLING PRODUCTS. 

From Union Mills, Middletovm, Conn. 
Wheat. 

No. I. Michigan White Winter Wheat; milling extra, Detroit 
inspection, from hopper, cleaned for grinding. 

No. II. Missouri Red Fall Wheat, St. Louis inspection, from 
hopper, cleaned for grinding. 

Milling products. 

From mixture of above, in equal parts. 

No. III. Wheat-bran, per Union Mills Circular, called commer- 
cially Wheat-shorts. 

No. IV. No. 2 Fine Feed, per Union Mills Circular, called 
commercially No. 2 Middlings. 

No. V. No. 1 Fine Feed, per Union Mills Circular, called com- 
mercially. No. 1 Middlings. 

per cent, of potassium nitrate, and in young potato plants, from 3.7 
to 5.3 per cent. {Vs. St. XII., 164). Schulze found from 0.06 to 3.1 per 
cent, of nitric acid in the dry substance of beets {Vs. St. XV., 170). Cha- 
tin likewise reports considerable nitric acid in buckwheat and maize, and 
but httle in wheat, oats, and bariey {Jbt. Afj. Chfin., 1873-4, 336). The 
organic non-albuminoid nitrogen compounds, peptones, vegetable bases, 
nitrogenous glucosides, amides, etc., occur in mucli larger quantities. 
Schulze and Urich find in potatoes only 65 per cent., and in beets less 
than one-half in the form of true albuminoids. Wigner concludes that of 
the nitrogenous constituents of the cereals from 15 to 20 per cent, are other 
than albuminoids. The proportion of these non-allmniinoid compounds 
is greatest in tlie bran ; wheat-bran containing from 11 to 58 parts in 100 
of total nitrogenous matter. 



23 

No. VI. Purified Middlings. 
No. VII. New-Process Flour. 
No. VIII. No. 1 Flour. 
No. IX. No. 2 Flour. 
No. X. No. 3 Flour. 

Method of grinding. New-process flour. 

The following description of the methods by which the above- 
named milling products are obtained, and the percentages they 
represent of the wheat from which they are manufactured, was 
very courteously furnished, with the samples, by Mr. Geo. A. 
Coles, of the firm Coles & Atkins, proprietors of Union Mills : 

" The cleaning of wheat before grinding is considered very 
essential to the proper manufacture of flour. There are employed 
in the mill referred to : 1st, a rolling screen or sieve ; 2d, a 
Hutchings separator ; 3d, a decorticating machine (Empire) ; 
4th, a California smutter, through all of which the wheat passes 
before arriving at the garners. The first operation after cleaning 
consists in passing the wheat through the " French burr " — four 
feet mill stones, — making technically "chop," commercially "gra- 
ham." This passes directly to a bolting chest of three reels, hav- 
ing upon the upper reel French bolting cloths, Nos. 11 and 12 ; on 
the middle reel the same, Nos. 13 and 14 ; and on the third reel 
the same, Nos. 15 and 16. 

The flour from this chest is called No. 1 and No. 2, 26 per cent, 
of the wheat going into the first, and 19 per cent, into the second, 
leaving the remainder of the chop to pass through ajiother set of 
reels which separates the bran and No. 2 middlings, giving 15 
per cent, of bran and 10 per cent, of No. 2 middlings. The mid- 
dlings pass from these reels to the Purifier, a machine which is 
calculated to separate the impurities that are lighter than the 
farina by lifting them from the sieves by means of an air-blast, 
leaving the " purified middlings " to fall to a mill-stone below, from 
which, after being re-ground, they pass to another set of bolts, 
making 13 per cent, of the wheat into " New-Process" flour, the 
I'emainder being again re-ground and making 6^ per cent, of the 
wheat into No. 3 flour, leaving a residue from the purifier and 
b(Jlts of 5 per cent., called No. 1 Feed, while the remaining 5 per 
cent, passes to screenings and waste. All the different grades of 
flour from the mill are used for family purposes. 



24 

To recapitulate, 100 parts l)y weight of wheat give, by above 
process — 

Screenings and waste, - - - H.O per cent. 

New-Process Flour, - - - l.'l.O " 

No. 1 Flour, .... 26.0 

No. 2 " - - - - 19.5 

No. 3 " - - - G.5 

No. 1 Feed, - - - 5.0 

No. 2 " - - - - 10.0. " 

Wheat Bran, - - - - l.'i.O 

It is hni just to remark that at the time these experiments were 
made, the science of milling was being carried on at the West 
with entirely different results, especially at mills using spring 
wheat exclusively, a few claiming to inake (jO per cent, of tlie 
wheat into middlings, while others, which have attained a reputa- 
tion for making the highest grades of flour, claim from 30 per 
cent, to 50 per cent, of middlings from the best Minnesota spring 
wheat, which is said to make the best Hour for bread. The mill 
named above, having passed into other hands, is now being altered 
for tlui i)nrpose of obtaining the largest proportions of middlings 
from spring and winter wheats, and to make a greater percentage 
of them into New-Process Flour. 

The commercial values of the No. 1 and No. 2 flours have always 
remained at a difference of fifty cents per barrel, while the 
New-Process Flour has usually brought a dollar more than the 
No. I flour, and the No. 3 a dollar less than the No. 2, although 
the latter varies in quality considerably, and is sometimes sold at 
nearly the same price as No. 2. The relative prices of the feeds 
and bran have varied considerably, the bran steadily gaining in 
favor as food for cows during the last seventeen years, the milk- 
men having adopted it almost universally ; so that at the pres- 
ent writing, the No. 1 feed brings but 25 per cent, more, and the 
No. 2 feed but 15 per cent, more than the bran. Formerly the 
bran rarely brought within 50 per cent, of the No. 1, and 30 per 
cent, of the No. 2. 

As a matter of course, the composition made with specimens 
obtained at this or any other mill, at different times, would be 
likely to vary somewhat from the fact that the same kinds ^f 
wheat are not always used and not always treated in the same 
manner. For instance, it will be noticed that the bran was 
exceedingly light in weight, only nine pounds to the bushel. 



25 



This in the different methods of treating the wheat often varies, 
weighing from nine to eighteen pounds. Also the proportion of 
middlings from the same wheat could have been run to make 25 
per cent, of New-Process Flour by higher grinding, thus varying 
the entire product, with of course different results from the analysis. 
The analyses of the above were executed by Mr. Warnecke, 
with results as follows : 

Analyses of Wheat, Bran, Middlings, New-Pkocess, and 
OTHER Flours. 



No. 




(D 


4) 

ll 


< 

2 

a 

PL, 


.2 

1 

e 


o 








Per 

cent. 


Per 

cent. 


Per 

cent. 


Per 

cent. 


Per 

cent. 


Per 

cent. 


Per 

cent. 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V 


Wheat, Michigan White Winter, 

Wheat, Missouri Red Fall 

Wheat Bran (" Shorts ") 

No. 2 Middlings 

No. 1 Middlings 


12.75 
13.52 
11.31 
12.27 
11.32 
12.35 
12.50 
11.98 
12.46 
10.30 


87.75 
86.48 
88.69 
87.73 
88.68 
87.65 
87.50 
88.02 
87.54 
87.90 


1.56 
1.55 
3.94 
4.06 
1.39 
0.50 
0.42 
0.46 
0.50 
0.55 


11.64 

11.79 

13.91 

13.33 

10.48 

10.40 

10.94 

9.25 

8.56 

9.59 


1.83 70.96 
1.72 69.95 
6.3462.10 
7.4560.21 
3.8870.86 


1.26 
1.47 
2.50 
2.68 
2.07 


VI. 

VII. 


Purified Middlings 

New-Process Flour 


none 75.. 50 
none 87. 50 
none 89.55 
none^90.38 
none!88.81 


1.24 
1.12 


VIII. 


No. 1 Flour 


0.74 


IX. 


No. 2 Flour. , . 


0.56 


X. 


No. 3 Flour 


1.05 













Leaving out the water, and calculating on dry substance, the 
analyses would stand : 



No. 



Per 

cent. 






Per 
cent. 



.In 100 Parts Wateb-pbee 
Substance. 



Per 

cent. 



Per 

cent. 



Per 

cent, 



rSS 



Per 
cent. 



Per 
cent. 



I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 



Wheat, Michigan White Winter, 

Wheat, Missouri Red Fall 

Wheat Bran (" Shorts ") 

No. 2 Middlings 

No. 1 Middlings 

Purified Middlings 

New-Process Flour 

No. 1 Flour 

No. 2 Flour 

No. 3 Flour. 



12.75 
13.52 
11.31 
12.27 
1 1 . 32 
12.35 
12.50 
11.98 
12.46 
10.30 



1.79 
1.79 
4.44 
4.63 
1.57 
0.57 
0.49 
0.52 
0.57 
0.61 



2.10 
1.99 
7.04 
8.50 
4.38 
0.00 
0.00 
0.00 
0.00 
0.00 



1.44 
1.70 
2.82 
3.05 
2.33 
1.42 
1.30 
0.84 
0.64 
1.16 



20 



Tlipro is some confusion of terms in tlie current names of the 
different refuse products separated from wheat in the manufacture 
of Hour. 

Bran, wliidi may be regarded as synonymous vvitli the Frendi 
Sou and the German Kleie, is api)lied to the refuse from the exte- 
rior portions of the grain, including the pericarp and more or less 
of the immediately adhering layers. In the "West and South, and 
to some extent in tlie Kastern States, the term ".Shorts" is com- 
monly used for bran. Middlings seems to be a. collective term 
applied to the parts between the bian and the flour. ' The distinc- 
tions recognized at the mill between different grades, No. 1 and 
No. 2 middlings, appear to be little observed in the feed-stores, 
and lost sight of in current use. " Ship-stuff " seems to be used 
in the South and "West, and " Mill-stuff " in the North and East, 
for a mixture of bran and middlings ; that is to say, these terms 
are applied to all the material, not flour, which comes from the 
grinding of wheat. "Feed "seems to be a convenient term ap- 
plied without much rule or discrimination to any of the coarser 
milling products. 

COMPARISON WITH OTHER AMERICAN MILLING PRODUCTS OF WHEAT. 

The figures which follow show how the above analyses accord 
with others of American milling products of wheat. Nos. 1, 2, 
3, 8, 9, and 1 1 are reported by Prof. F. H. Storer, Bulletin of the 
Bussey Institution, I. 25, and Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, and 10 by Prof. S. W. 
Johnson, Report Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 
1877, 58. No. 7 was called "Fine Feed" (Ground Bran). No. 
11 was a " mixture of shorts and middlings in some unknown pro- 
portions." 



III. 
I 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 



IV. 

V 



11 



Wheat Bkans. 

Wlioat Bran, Union Mills, 

St. Louis Shorts, 

Illinois Shorts, 

Michigan Shorts, 

Coarse Wheat Bran, "from White Wheat," 
Course Wheat Bran, " from Red Wheat," 

Coar.se Wheat Brau, " Western," 

Fine Wheat Bran 

Average, eight Samples of Bran 

Wheat Middlings. 

No. 2 Mi(l(llin<;fs 

No. 1 MiiltUini^s 

St. Lotii.s Middlings, 

Illinois Middlings, 

Wheat Middlings 

Average of five Samples of Middlings, 

St. Louis ship-stuff, 



Water 
per 
cent. 


Pttre^ 

Ash. 


Crude 
I'rot. 


Crude 
Fiber. 


Extr. 
Mat. 


Fats, 
per 
cent. 


per 
cent. 


per 
cent. 


per 
cent. 


per 
cent. 


11.31 


3.94 


13.91 


6.34 


62.10 


2.50 


12.23 


4.53 


12.06 


7.12 


60.05 


4.01 


10.96 


4.24 


11.13 


7.29 


62.32 


4.06 


11.77,4.06 


12.75 


10.47 


56.30 


4.05 


10 87 


5.75 


13.()3 


7.56 


5!».92 


3.27 


11.14 


5.99 


12.13 


9.31 


58.36 


3.07 


12.12 


6.33 


13.50 


8 79 


55.90 


3.36 


10.47 


5.56 


13.88 


7.98 


58.88 


3.23 


11.36 


5.05 


12.87 


8.08 


59.12 


3.!)2 


12.27 


4.06 


13.33 


7.45 


61.21 


2.68 


11.32|l.39 


10.48 


3.88 


70.86 


2.07 


12.08:1. .57 


1 1 .06 


3.57 


69.21 


2.51 


13.30 


2.71 


10.13 


5 35 


64.80 


3.71 


10.56 


.3.45 


14.22 


5.35 


62.90 


3.52 


11.81 


2.28 


11,40 


4.75 


66.84 


2.92 


11.81 


2.25 


11.12 


5.59 


66.46 


2.77 



27 



RICE MEAL, BARLEY MEAL, RYE BRAN, OATS. 

Nos. XI and XII were furnished, Feb. 5, 1876, by H. L. 
Stewart, Esq., Middle Haddam, Conn. 

No. XL Rice feed. Is not much used of late in this region, 
though it was formerly more common. Mr. Stewart infers from 
his experience that for milch cows this food increases the yield of 
milk more than corn or barley, and that it possesses fattening 
propex'ties superior to corn. 

No. XII. Barley feed. Mr. Stewart has used this for some 
years to produce milk, and also to keep his animals in good general 
condition. He thinks the yield of milk is not so large as with a 
wheat fodder, but the animals keep in flesh better. Both the above 
were evidently unl)olted, and contained the whole of the grain. 

No. XXXVII. Rye bkan. Furnished by Messrs. J. H. & H. 
Fisher, Staddle Hill Mills, Middletown. In grinding rye three 
products are made, viz., bran, of which this is a sample, cannaille, 
and flour. 

Oats. 

No. XXIX. Sample taken from office of Union Mills, Middle- 
town, Conn., April 20, 1878. Probably from Illinois. Quality, 
" No. 1 White oats. Chicago or Peoria inspection. Would pass in 
New York as No. 1 surely, and perhaps as Extra White. A fair 
quality of merchantable oats." 

No. XXXI. Sample furnished by Chester Sage, Esq., Middle- 
town, Conn., May 1. 1878. Grown in 1877. Soil heavy loam, very 
poor; hardpan sub-soil. Average crop of oats and straw, i. e., oats 
about thirty bushels to acre, weighing twenty -nine pounds per bushel. 
The field on which these oats were grown was the same in which 
the experiment with corn, " No. S, 1877," and adjacent to the one 
on which the corn experiment was made, No. C. (See article on 
Field Experiments with Fertilizers.) It showed a great deficiency 
of plant food, particularly potash, but with mixtures of superphos- 
phates, potash salts, and nitrate of soda or dried blood, gave excel- 
lent yields of corn. 

The analyses of Nos. XI and XII were executed by Mr. G. 
Warnecke, those of XXIX, XXXI, and XXXVIII by Mr. C. D. 
Woods. 

Fats, 
per 
cent. 



XII. Barley Meal, 

XI. Rice Meal, 

XXXVIII. Rye Bran.. 
XXIX.Oats,No.l White 
XXXI. Oats, Mr. Sage, 



Water. 


Water- 


Pure 


Crude 


Crude 
Fiber. 


Extractive 


per 
cent. 


free Sub. 


Ash. 


Protein. 


Matters. 


per cent. 


per 
cent. 


per cent. 


cent. 


per cent. 
63.47 


9.85 


90.15 


3.77 


12.68 


7.00 


1.5 11 


84.89 


6.03 


9.25 


8.12 


59.85 


12.88 


87.12 


2.89 


12.58 


2..54 


66.96 


u.a.j 


88.77 


2.91 


11.54 


12.18 


57.79 


12.36 


87.64 


3.03 


8.00 


12.89 


59.02 



3.24 
1.61 
2.15 
5.06 
4.70 



28 



Calculated on dry substance the figures would bp 



XII. Barley Meal, 

XI. Ricf Meal 

XXXVIII Rye Bran.. 
XXIX. Oats.No.l White 
XXXI. Oats, Mr. Sage. 



Water, 
per 
cent. 



9.85 
I. Ml 
12 88 
11.23 
12.36 



Water- 
free Sub. 
per 
cent. 



90.15 

84.89 
87.12 
88 77 
87.64 



IN KM) l-AIETS WATEB-rRBB BDBHTANCE. 



I'll re 
Ash. 
per 
cent. 

4.18 
7.10 
.■5.. 3 2 
3.28 
3.46 



Crude 
Protein, 
per cent. 

14.06 
10 94 
14.44 
13.00 
9 13 



f'riitic 
KilxT. 

per 
cent. 

7.76 

•J !t2 
i:!.72 
14.71 




Fal8. 



per 
cent. 



3.59 
1.90 
2.47 
5.70 
5.36 



INDIAN CORN AND COBS. 

No. XXXII. Eight-Rowed "Yellow" or "Canada" Corn. 
S;im[)les furnished by Chester Sage, Middletowii, Conn., May 1, 
187.S. Grown upon field contiguous to that ou which the oats, 
XXXI above, were raised. Crop manured with hen manure ; 
yield about fifty bushels shelled corn per acre. One half bushel 
of ears, "rounded measure," weighed 19 lbs. 15 oz. This 
shelled, gave shelled corn 16 lbs. 10^ oz., cobs 3 lbs. 4^ oz. ; 
total, 19 lbs. 14]- oz. (cobs 16.5;^, corn 83.5;^ of ears). One 
half -bushel of shelled corn shoveled into a half -bushel measure 
and struck by straight edge of stick, "three strokes beveling," 
weighed 29 lbs. 9-^ oz. One bushel would thus weigh 59 lbs. 3 oz. 
The sample was a good, fair specimen of New England Eight- 
rowed Yellow Corn. 

XXXIII. Cobs, from above Corn. Above samples were taken 
from different parts of a bin in a barn May 1st, a pleasant day, 
after several days of rain, the air being more damp than usual. 

Nos. XL AND XLI. From store of Coles & Atkins, Middle- 
town, Conn., July 17, 1878. 

XL. Western Yellow. Qualitt/. — Said to be average for 
ordinary years, rather better than average for this year. Contained 
some unsound kernels, bits of cobs and other refuse. Bits of cobs 
and other refuse of one-half bushel were picked out, and weighed 
230 grams = 53 ozs. Some fragments of nearly black line prairie 
soil in the refuse. This quality is ground for feed -meal, and sold 
whole for feed, but is not fit for family use. Price, 65 cts. per 
bushel. In two bushel bags, 62^ cts. 

XLI. Southern White. Quality. — Very fair, not extra, if 
anything better than average. But few imperfect kernels and lit- 
tle refuse. Is ground for family use, but mostly used for fodder 
in this region. Weight, 4 qts. -f- paper = 64 lbs. ; ^ bushel = 27 



29 



lbs.; 1 bushel = 54 lbs. (Weighed in half bushel measure, which 
was carefully filled with a scoop and " struck " in ordinary way.) 
Price, 75 cts. single bushel, $1.40 per bag of two bushels. 

The following analyses were made by Messrs. Warnecke and 
Woods: 



COKN. 


1 


ll 




.9 
'53 

p 
o 


O 








Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 




cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


XL. Western Yellow 


13.93 


86.07 


1.25 


8.82 


I.. 59 


70.48 


3.92 


XLI. Southern White 


13.82 


86.18 


1.32 


8.80 


0.88 


71.07 


4.02 


XXXH. Eight-rowed Yellow.. 


15.10 


84.90 


1.36 


10.01 


1.24 


66.99 


5.31 


XXXIV. Cobs of XXXII 


11.45 


88 . 55 


1.3 


1.2 


38.3 


47.6 


0.1 



Reckoned on dry substance, the figures become: 









V 


In 100 PART.S Water-free 








a 
m 




Substance. 






a" 

'a> 


Ut 












•a 








<u ■ 
























CORN. 




* 




CL, 


fe 


"S <j) 








%- 
























O 


3 

o 




1 




Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 






cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


XL. 


Western Yellow 


13.93 


86.07 


1.45 


10.25 


1.85 


81.89 


4.56 


XLI. 


Southern White 


13.82 


86.18 


1.53 


10.31 


1 . 02 


82.47 


4.67 


XXXII. 


Eight-rowed Yellow. . 


15.10 


84.90 


1.60 


11.56 


1.69 


78.90 


6.25 


XXXIII. 


Cobs of XXXII 


11.45 


88.55 


1.52 


1.38 


43.21 


53.80 


0.09 



TIMOTHY GRASS AND HAY. 

The Samples Nos. XIII, XIV, XV, and XVI, were gathered, in 
1876, on the farm of the Maine Agricultural College, at Orono, with 
the assistance of Messrs. W. Balentine and A. R. Parrington. Prof. 
J. R, Farrington has kindly furnished the following data concern- 
ing the circumstances in which they were grown. Soil. — Situation, 
meadow, nearly level, sufficient slope for surface drainage. Kiiid, 
clayey loam, heavy, wet, but underd rained. Depth of surface soil, 
six inches. To run a plow deeper than that would turn up hard- 
pan. Subsoil, clay hardpan with occasional stones. Previous treat- 



30 

meni niid ijiild. iMfailovv ill low cnndition in lH<i9, broken up. In 
1870, dressed with horse manure of poor quahty, " fire-fanged,'' 
and planted to {)otatoes. In 1.S71, plowed in June and sowed with 
])arley and grass seed ; plaster, three bushels to the acre, being 
applied at the same time. In spring of 1872, dressed with 200 
lbs. f)f ammoniated superphosphate to the acre. Since then in 
grass. 

I may add that a portion of this field was plowed in Ihe spring 
of 1878, and used for the experiments with corn, and turnips, 
Nos. 1, and 38 described in article on "Field Experiments with 
Fei'tilizers." While the "complete fertilizers," coTitaining nitrate 
of soda, superphosphate and potash salts, brought the best results, 
corn and potatoes responded especially well to the potash-salts. 
Turnips were most benefited by the superphosphate. In another 
part of the same meadow several plots top-dressed with different 
fertilizers through a series of years, gave the best and most lasting 
results from ashes dry and leached, the next from stable manure, 
and the poorest from superphosphates. 

The plots were each 16^ by 8] ft. = i sq. rd. Duplicate sam- 
ples were taken at each cutting. They were weighed when freshly 
cut, partially cured in the field, carried in cloths (hay-caps) to a 
barn, kept in loose piles on the same cloths, until well cured, and 
weighed again. At the time of this weighing samples of 1 kilo- 
gram each were carefully selected, placed in small bags, and shipped 
in barrels to Middletown, where they were kept until iised for 
analyses in the winter, in an unoccupied room of the building in 
which the laboratory is situated. The times of cutting, stage of 
development, and weights are given herewith. 





YIELD, PER SMALL PLOTS. 


YIELD 






PRESBU.T CUT. 1 CURED. 




TIME OF CDTTING. 


rod. 
Ibe. 


roa. 
lbs. 


1 
1 eq.i 80. 
rod. roo. 

lbs. IbB. 


rod. 
lbs. 


1 eq. 
rod. 
lbs. 


Green, 
lbs. 


Cured. 
IbB. 


Dry 
Sub- 
stance, 
lbs. 


No. XIII. Well headed out. . . 

No. XIV. In full blossom 

No. XV. W hen out of blossom, 
No. XVI. Nearly ripe 


18i 
32j^ 
23 
23 


23^ 
25^ 
21f 
24 


4U 8j 
57 g 13t 
44 j 12^ 
47 13| 


lOi 
13 


19* 
23 i 
22| 
26i 


6681 
9220 
7168 
7.520 


3120 
3760 
3600 
4200 


2749 
3301 
3117 
3616 



31 



Analyses by Mr. Warnecke follow. 



Timothy Hat. 



TIME OF CUTTING. 



No. XIII. Well headed out 

No. XIV. In full blossom 

No. XV. When out of blossom 

No. XVI. Nearly ripe 



6.96 
7.34 
7.76 
7.02 



93.04 
92.66 
92.24 
92.98 



100 Parts Watbr-pree Sub- 
stance CONTAINED — 



4.69 
4.35 
4.15 
3.65 



9.57 
7.12 
7.06 
6.81 



33.03 
33.28 
33.78 
35.43 






50.74 
53.29 
53.26 
52.19 



1.95 
1.96 
1.75 
1.97 



On the basis of 12.5 per cent, of water, the figures stand : 



TiMOTHT Hat. 

TIME OF CUTTING. 




(0 


.9 
o 

1 


s 

-a 

a 

o 


<3J . 
OS'S 


s 


No. XIII. Well headed out 


12.5 
12.5 
12.5 
12.5 


4.10 

3.81 
3.53 
3.22 


8.37 
6.23 
6.18 
5.86 


28.90 
29.12 
29.56 
31.00 


44.42 
46.63 
46.60 
45.69 


1 .71 


No. XIV. In full blossom 


1.71 




I 53 


No. XVI. Nearly ripe 


1.73 







CLOVER GRASS AND HAY. 

Samples Nos. XVII to XX were gathered on the farm of 
the Maine State College in 1875, as per statement concerning 
Timothy, in above description. Soil. — Poor loam, more clayey than 
sandy. Depth of surface soil, eight inches. Subsoil, hard-pan, 
quite pure clay. Previous treatment and yield. Report says, prob- 
ably with truth, that the land was heavily limed by its previous 
owner. In 1870 it was well manured from the cow stables, and 
planted to potatoes. In 1871 was heavily manured from the cow 
stables, and planted to fodder corn. In 1872 sown to barley, in 
1873 to fodder corn, and in 1874 to wheat and grass, was well 
manured at each sowing. Plots, 16 x 20 ft., yielded as below. 



82 



Clover Hay. 


Yield per plot, 
Green. 


Yield per plot. 
Dry. 


Average Yield per acre. 


TIME OF CUTTING. 


a. 


b. 

lbs. 


Aver- 
age, 
lbs. 


a. 
lbs. 


b. 
lbs. 


Aver- 
ajje. 

1I)S. 


(Jrecn. 

lbs. 


Cured. 
lb». 


Dry Sub- 

stant-e. 

lbs. 


Just before blossom 

In full blossom 


2.3-' 
20 
33A 
25| 


28} 
19 
39i 
31? 


26J 
19A 
36^ 
28j 


IIJ 

15i 
I2i 


]3i 

12| 

16 

14i 


121, 

'5-,',, 


3570 
2650 
4960 
3910 


1618 
1641 

2054 
1802 


1885 
1401 


Wlu'ii heads betjin to brown, 
Nearly ripe 


1750 
1523 







Analyses by Mr. Warnecke resulted as follows : 











0) 


100 PARTS Water-free Sub- 




Clover Hay. 
time of cdtting. 


0) 


5 

s 

-fa 

a) 


stance CONTAIN— 




a) 


.9 
'S 

o 

u 

1 


t4 

2 


1^ 


a 


No. 


XVII. 


Just before blossom 


7.16 


92.84 


8 34 


14.27 


27.75 


47.93 


1.71 


No, 


XVIII. 
XIV. 


In full blossom 


7.26 
8.. 50 


92.74 
92.50 


7.65 13.48 


27.79 


4S.70 


?,38 


No. 


Nearly out of blossom . . . 


7.34 113.13,29.87 


47.86 1.80 


No. 


XX. 


Nearly ripe 


7.66 


92.34 


6.50110.3531.75 


49.00 2.40 



Supposing the hay to contain water enough to make one-seventh 
of its whole weight, its composition would be : 



Clover Hay. 
time of cottino. 


t.1 

1 


< 


Crude Protein. 


0) 

o 

g 


si 




No. XVII. Just before blossom 

No. XVIII. In full blossom 


14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 


7.15 
6.56 
6.29 
5.57 


12.23 
11.56 
11 . 25 

8.87 


23.79 
23.82 
25.60 
27.22 


41.03 
41.72 
41.01 
41.98 


1.47 
2.04 


No. XIX. Nearly out of blossom. . . 
No. XX. Nearly ripe 


1.55 
2.06 







HUNGARIAN GRASS AND HAY. 

Nos. XXIV. -XX VI. samples were furnished by the courtesy of 
Dr. J. W. Alsop, Middletown, Conn., who gives the following 
descriptions : Soil. — Low land, gravelly loam, stony, clay subsoil, 
wet in spring. Had been unbroken pasture for at least twenty 
years, until fall of 1874, when it was under-drained three feet deep, 



83 



drains forty feet apart, and plowed. In 1875 had roots in. drills, 
with a liberal supply of barn-yard manure. Crop. — In first week 
of June, 1876. sowed to Hungarian grass, with a dressing of Stock- 
bridge formula for Hungarian for one ton. Crop cut July 19, 
1876. Yield about 3,300 lbs. of Hungarian hay per acre. 

Subsequent treatment and yield. — Pastured until Aug. 18, 
1876, then plowed and seeded with herd's grass, red-top, and 
clover, with dressing of 200 lbs. of blood-guano per acre. In 1877 
cut from the three acres, three roods, and twenty-seven rods, nine 
loads of hay, averaging fully one ton per load, and two loads of 
clover rowen. In 1878 cut eleven loads of hay and three loads of 
rowen. The samples for analysis were taken from plots of 49 to 
87|^ square feet area, as follows : 

No. XXIV. Cut July 17, 1876. Heads partly filled; seeds 
little developed ; stalks averaged about twenty inches long. 

No. XXV. Cut Aug. 3d. Heads well-developed and well-filled 
with seeds ; seeds soft ; hay rather yellow ; stalks averaged about 
twenty-six inches long. 

No. XXVI. Cut Aug. 18th. Nearly ripe. Heads well-filled, 
seeds falling out ; hay coarse and yellow like straw ; stalks some 
thirty-nine inches long. 

The samples were brought to the laboratory in the fall of 1876, 
and kept in the same unheated and unoccupied room as the hays, 
etc., above, until the following May, when portions were carefully 
selected for analysis. The yields per acre of the freshly-cut grass, 
cured hay, and hay in the very dry condition after keeping in the 
laboratory, were as follows : 



No. 


Green Fodder. 


Cured Hay. 


Dried Hay. 


Dry 

Substance. 


XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 


July 17,1876, 20,740 
Aug. 3, " 16,891 
Aug. 18, " 10,454 


July 29, 1876, 5,876 
Aug. 12, 1876, 6,111 
Aug. 25, " 4,014 


Mays, 1877, 5,124 
May 3, " 5,133 
May 3. " 3,526 


4,509 
4,773 
3,121 



The percentages of water, based upon results of analyses and 
weighings, and used for the above calculations, were : 







Green Fodder. 


Cured Hay. 


Dried Hay. 


XXIV. 


Moisture 


= 78.30 


23.24 


12.11 


XXV. 


" 


= 71.73 


21.87 


7.00 


XXVI. 


" 


= 70.24 


22.23 


11.47 



34 



The crop of 3,300 lbs. jmm- acre, cut July H»tli, would thus be, 
per figures of XXIV., jissuiuiug twmty-three percent, water for 
freslily-cured hay : 

Green Weight, Cured Hay. 

Dry Substance. (H> 75 per cent. Water. ® a'S per cent. Water. 

2,54111)8. IU,164 11)3. 3,300 lbs. 



Analyses by Mr. Warnecke gave : 















100 PARTS WaTEK-PUEE 




HlINGAK 


IAN Hay. 




Jo 


Substance contain — 






a 




















j= 


v 

2 










TIME 


OF 


CDTTING. 


<u 




< 

V 


9> 

■a 




£5 


m 












03 


& 


o 




V."^ 
H 


a 
fa 


No. XXIV. 


July 


17. 


Heads partly filled. . . . 


12.01 


87.99 


8.60 


12.81 


34.69 


41.76 


204 


No. XXV. 


Aup. 


3. 


Head.s well filled, seeds 
















soft 








7.03 


93.00 


5.13 


9.63 


33.06 


50.35 


1.83 


No. XXVI. 


Aug. 


18. 


Ileads ripe, seeds hard, 


11.47 


88.53 


6.34 


6.87 


34.73 


50.36 


1.70 



The cured bay, with cue sixth water and five-sixths dry sub- 
stance, would thus contain : 







Hungarian Hat. 




ja 


o 

(1< 


1-^ 










TIME OF CUTTING. 


Oi 


<i 


<K 




Sb 












a 


E 




hS 


as 








Oc 


o 


o 


K 


t^ 


No 


XXIV. 


Heads partly filled 


16 7 


7 17 


10 67 


98 91 


34 85 


1 70 


No. 


XXV. 


Heads well filled, seeds soft. . . . 


16.7 


4,28 


8.03 


27.55 


41.91 


1..53 


No. 


XXVL 


Heads ripe, seeds hard 


16.7 


5.29 


5.72 


29.94 


41.94 


1.42 



The composition of the green fodder, with three-fourths water 
and one-fourth dry substance, would be : 



Hungarian Grass, 
time op cdtting. 


1 


< 

B 
PL. 


d 
'S 

2 

0) 

s 

3.20 
2.41 
1.71 


O 






No. XXIV. Heads partly filled 

No. XXV. Heads well filled, seeds soft. . . . 
No. XXVI. Heads ripe, seeds hard 


75.0 
75.0 
75.0 


2.15 
1.28 
1.58 


8.67 
8.26 
8.68 


10.47 

12..59 
12.57 


0.51 

0.46 
0.43 



35 



FODDER CORN— SOUTHERN WHITE. 

The samples numbered XXI.-XXIII. were also from the farm 
of the Maine Agricultui'al College, and furnished by Messrs. W. 
Balentine and A. R. Parrington, in 1876. 

The soil was a sandy loam, quite stony. In trials on a contigu- 
ous portion of the field in 1877, with potatoes, beans, and rutaba- 
gas, best yields came with phosphoric acid and nitrogen, though 
potatoes responded somewhat to potash salts. The rows were 
three feet apart. Each sample consisted of the produce of twelve 
feet (No. XXII. six feet) of a single row. They are open to the 
objection that, coming from such small areas, they do not repre- 
sent fairly the produce of a whole field. Further, the weighings 
were made with ordinary scales, and are not so certainly correct 
as they would have been with an accurate balance. 

Nos. XXI. and XXII. were taken Aug. 23d, when some of the 
tassels (male blossoms) were just beginning to appear ; No. XXIII. 
two weeks later. No. XXI. was the more thinly sown, there being 
in the 12 feet of the row 43 stalks, generally from 5 to 6 feet high, 
and from ^ inch to 1^ inch diameter. These and other details are 
tabulated below. 

In view of the fact that the samples were weighed with ordinary 
scales, I do not consider the calculations of total yield per acre, 
and amounts of water-free substance, perfectly accurate. 







FODJIER CORN, 


o 
o 


.3 
1 


s 


1 




p. 


<v 

C 

to - 


S 




No. 


ti 


Southern 


a 


o 


z 


o 




"Sb 


0) 


X3 
SO 


f,^ 




o 


WHITE. 


a 




X) 


(U 




a « 




c: ^ 




o 




a 


s 

3 


'53 


a 

03 


£a 


^B. 


2« 


tU 


1^ 




Q 




Q 


iz; 


a 


s 


O 


Q 


C5 


o 








ft. 




ft. 


in. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 






XXI. 


Aug. 23 


Thickly sown 


12X3 


43 


4-6 


i-H 


23i 


7f 


26,620 


9,377 


3,170 


XXII. 


Aug. 23 


Thinly sown. 


12X3 


236 


4-5 


h-i 


26^ 


7 


31,762 


8,470 


2,033 


XXIII 


Sep. 7 


Thickly sown 


6X3 








H 


3 


18,150 


7,260 















36 

The samples were brought in small bags to Middletown, and 
kept in the same room with the hay above until u.sed for analysis 
in the winter. Results by Mr. Warnecke follow: 







.a 

V 


100 PARTS WATKR-PRBE 
StJBSTANCB OONTAre— 


FoDDEU Coim 
(after drying In laborntory). 

Time of cutting. 


J3 


2 

a. 


<0 m 
"2-= 


si 


1 


No. XXI. Ang. 23d, thin sown 

No. XXII. Aug. 2.3d, thick sown 

No. XXIII. Sept. 7th, thin sown 


11.55 
9.00 

8.81 


88.45 
91.00 
91.19 


6.55 
8.62 
f).97 


8.87 

8.44 

10.38 


32.17 

.34.66 
30.16 


50.91 

46.98 
51.48 


1.50 
1..30 
I.OI 



Assuming the field-cured corn to contain one-fourth water, the 
composition would be: 



Fodder Corn, Cured. 
Time of cutting. 


tit 

o 

S 




Crude 
protein. 




II 




No, XXI. Aug. 23d, thin sown 

No. XXII. Aug. 23d, thick sown.. . . 
No. XXIII. Sept. 7th, thin sown 


25.00 
25 00 
25.00 


4.91 
6.46 
5.23 


6.65 
6..33 
7.79 


24.15 
26.00 
22.62 


38.17 
.35.23 
38.60 


1.12 
0.98 
0.76 



Assuming the green fodder to have six-sevenths water, and one- 
seventh dry substance, the figures would stand: 



Fodder Corn, Gheen. 
Time of cutting. 


1 


J3 

a 

3 


.9 


<u2 
o 


It 


1 


No. XXI. Aug. 23d, thin sown 

No. XXII. Aug. 23d, thick sown . . . 
No. XXIII. Sept. 7th, thin sown 


85.7 
85.7 
85.7 


0.94 
1.23 
1.00 


1.20 
1.48 


4.6 

4.95 

4.31 


7.28 
6.73 
7.37 


0.21 
0.18 
0.14 



OAT AND RYE STRAW. 

Samples XXXIV and XLII were furnished by Mr. C. Sage of 
Middletown. 

No. XXXIV was straw from the oats No. XXXI, described 
above; No. XLII was " from rye grown on strong land, heavy 



37 

loam, crop about 16 bushels per acre, average growth of straw as 
to height, but not very thick.'' The samples were taken from the 
barn May 1, 1878. Fair samples were secured by removing the 
upper layer and selecting portions from different parts of the 
interior of the mow. Analyses by Mr. Woods follow: 





1 




100 PARTS OF WATBR-FREE 
SUBSTANCE CONTAIN — 




"2 

03 


a 
% 

go- 
o 


o 




^ 
^ 


No. XXXIV. Oat straw. . . 
No. XLII. Rye straw. . . 


11.45 
11.32 


88.55 
88.68 


2.07 
9.18 


2.63 

7.88 


68.96 
39.08 


30.19 
40.82 


1.15 
3.04 



Assuming one-eighth of the weight of the straw to be water, 
the composition would be: 

















<u ■ 












JH 


a 




.&£ 












C3 




^i 












^ 


3 


s^ 


F^« 


mS 










Ph 


a 


O 


m 


fe 


No, 


XXXIV. 
XLII. 


Oat straw 


12.5 
12.5 


1.81 
8.03 


2.30 
6.89 


55.96 
34.20 


26.42 
35.70 


1.0 


No 


Rve straw 


2 68 









LINSEED, COTTON SEED, AND PALM NUT MEALS, 
STARCH WASTE, AND BREWERS' GRAINS. 

No. XXVIII was from the store of N. W. Merwin & Co., New 
Haven; No. XLV from the store of Smith, Northam & Robinson, 
Hartford; and No. XLVIII from H. K. & F. B. Thurber & Co., 
New York. Nos. LVI and LVII were sent by Mr. E. Hicks of 
Old Westbury, N. Y., in behalf of the Queens County Milk Pro- 
ducers Association. No. LVI, Starch Waste from Glen Cove 
Manufacturing Company, is called Starch Feed by Long Island 
farmers. The weight, as brought from the factory, varies from 
75 to 85 lbs., averaging 80 lbs. per bushel. It costs about 23 cents 
per hundred lbs. It is fed to milch cows, about one peck at a feed, 
being mixed with corn meal, bran, and sometimes roots. No. LVII, 
Brewers' Grains. Weight per bushel about 70 lbs. Cost per 100 
lbs., 18 cents. About 4 quarts is given to cows at one feed, and 



88 



in connection with it are fed corn meal, cotton seed meal, and 
turnips. The samples were partly dried, and the loss determined 
by Mr. Hicks before sending. Allowance for this is made in the 
figures below. The analyses, by Mr. Woods, are calculated for 
fresh and for water-free substance. 



No. XXVII, Linseed 

Ileal 
No. XLV, Cotton Seed 

Meal 

No. XLVm, Palm Nut 

Meal 

No. LVI. Starch waste. 
No. LVTI, Brewers' 

Grains . 



I 



9.13 
7^ 



7.90 
r2.19 



75.24 



a a 



90.87 
92.76 



92.10 

27.81 



^4.76 



8.16 
5 



3.99 
0.12 



0.29 



32.43 
41.45 



13,53 
3.56 



5.94 



7.26 
3.08 



18.75 
3.36 



3.87 



31.45 
24.39 



41.05 

18.78 

13.19 



11.. "^7 
18.01 



14.78 
1.99 



1.47 



100 PARTS WATER-FREE 

SCBBTANCE CONTAIN— 



c 7j 

£ S 



3.98 35.69 
6 2844.69 



4.33114.69 
0.43!l2.88 



1. 18:24.06 



UlX4 






7.99 
3.32 



20.36 
12.05 



16.62 



34.61 



44.57 
67.49 



53.20 



12.73 
19.42 



16.05 
7.15 



5.92 



DRIED BLOOD, 



MEAT-SCRAP, AND DRY GROUND 
FISH. 



Since actual experience in farm practice has united with the 
results of feeding experiments in the Agricultural Stations in 
Europe to confirm the teachings of chemistry, that such highly 
nitrogenous animal refuse as dried blood, meat-scrap, and fish 
may be made extremely valuable for fodder, and that the residue 
not consumed is all the better for manure for having passed 
through the animal machine, the amounts of nutritive ingredients 
in these materials are worth the knowing. 

Nos. XLIII and XLIV, dried blood and meat scraps, furnished 
by Messrs. W. H. Bowker & Co., Boston, were from the Brighton 
Abattoir. I understand them to come mostly if not entirely from 
cattle and sheep, the meat-scrap consisting mainly of intestines. 
Neither has, at the time of this writing, a very strong odor. The 
same may be said of the dried blood. No. XLIX, which was from 
the store of the Mapes Formula & Peruvian Guano Company, 
New York, and was sold for a fertilizer. No. XLVII was a 
"pork-scrap" from the same firm. It is light color, very little 
darker than Indian corn meal, fine, and very wholesome in appear- 
ance and smell. I cannot see why it should not make a very 
valuable food. The samples of fish-scrap were all intended for 
fertilizers except No. XLVI, from the Mapes Formula & Peruvian 



39 



Guano Company. This is a very fine, dry, light-colored, and 
wholesome material, and must be very well adapted for feeding 
pux'poses. Analyses by Mr. Woods resulted as below: 



100 PARTS Water- 
free Substance 

CONTAIN — 



Slaughter-house Refuse. 

No. XLIII. Dried Blood 

No. XLIX. Dried Blood 

No. XLIV. Meat Scrap 

No. XL VII. Pork Scrap 



Dry Ground Fish. 
No. XLVI. Dry Ground Fish 
No. L. 
No. LI. 
No. LII. 
No. LIII. 
No. LIV. 
No. LV. 



5.26 
8.89 
4.18 
8.26 



8.18 
10.70 
18.74 
14.64 
13.4.5 
11.04 
11.00 



94.74 
91.11 
9.5.82 
91.74 



91.82 
89.30 
81.26 
85.36 
86.55 
88.96 
89.00 



63.12 
62.81 
47.31 
67.43 



50.50 

49.28 
50.37 
46 87 
49.75 
53.75 
46.62 



2.24 

10.50 

2.14 

6.47 



13.12 

11.40 

11.30 

9.63 

7.31 

3.33 

10.40 



66.62 
68.94 
49.37 
73.50 



55.0 

.55.18 

CI. 98 

54.91 

57.48 

60.42 

52.38 



2.36 

11.03 

2.23 

7.05 



14.29 
12.77 
13.90 
11.28 
8.44 
3.74 
11.68 



APPLES. 

No. XXVIII. Rhode Island Greenings. 
A nitrogen determination of the sample of which the ash analy- 
sis was given on page 313, resulted as follows : 437.25 grams of 
apples were partially dried, and gave 704.3 grams of "air-dry" 
substance. This latter, dried in hydrogen at 98°, gave 12.81 per 
cent, water, and 87.19 per cent, water-free substance. The latter 
jdelded 0.27 per cent, nitrogen, which, multiplied by 6.25, would 
make 1.69 per cent, crude protein. The analysis would thus 

stand : 

Fresh Apples. Dry Substance. 

Water, 85.96 

Water-free substance, 14.04 100.00 

Pure ash, 0.28 1.99 

Crude protein, 0.27 1.69 

The amount of nitrogen is so very small that the fact that a 

proportion of it may exist as other than albuminoid compounds 

is of comparatively little moment. 



40 

IV. On Some Experiments on the Growth of Plants 
in Sand with various Solutions. 

Ill anticipation of some special work on plant nutrition 
and growth, tlie following preparatory trials were made. 
Though teachiui^ nothing particularly new, tliey seem of suf- 
ficient interest to warrant brief notice here. 

The nearly barren tracts of land known as the Wallingford 
Plains, north of New Haven, are familiar to all . travelers over the 
New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad. Large portions of 
this soil, if such a dry, drifting sand may be called a soil, are en- 
tirely devoid of vegetation. With the aid of Dr. J. W. Alsop of 
this place, and Mr. W. Balentine of the Experiment Station, the 
experiments referred to were made on portions of the poorest of 
this sand. Fifteen wooden boxes, each one foot square, were filled 
with the sand and arranged in three series of five each. The 
boxes of each series were numbered I, II, III, IV, V. In the 
first row buckwheat was sown ; in the second oats, and in the third 
beans. To fertilize these, several solutions were prepared by dis- 
solving the proper salts in water. These were as described by 
Nobbe (Lanchu., Vs. /SV., XIII, .331). One, the normal solution, 
contained magnesium sulphate, potassium chloride, calcium nitrate, 
and potassium and iron phosphates, thus furnishing all the needed 
ingredients of plant food. No. Y of each series had this normal 
solution. Another solution, similar to the first, except that no nitro- 
gen was supplied, was used for each No. IV. Each No. Ill had 
a solution with phosphoric acid, and No. IV no potassium, while 
No. V in each case received rain-water only. 

The plants supplied with the complete fertilizer, No. V, were 
healthy, grew well, and gave a fair yield. Where potash was 
omitted. No. II, the plants were about as tall, but thinner, and 
the yield of seed was only about half as large. Without phos- 
phoric acid. No. Ill, the plants looked aliout as well as in No. ll, 
but the amount of seed was extremely small. Where nitrogen 
was left out, the plants were stunted, spindling, and sickly. They 
yielded almost no seed, and were in fact no better than those which 
had nothing but rain-water. 

When the plants were ripe they were harvested, the roots freed 
from sand by careful washing, and the different parts measured 
and weighed. The table below gives measurements and air-dry 
weights of buckwheat and oats : 



41 



Buckwheat. 



Number of Plants 

Average height (centimeters*). 

Weight of seed (gramst) 

Weight of straw " 

Weight of roots " 



Oats. 



M 

25 

30 
1.2 
4.9 
4.6 



II. 



25 
60 
13 
14.1 
6.6 



III. 



!3 O 



24 

60 
4.4 
8.7 
2.4 



IV. 



24 

30 
0.9 
2.9 
4.6 



V. 



24 
61 
20.4 
•J 5. 4 
5.4 



Number of plants 

Average height (centimeters*). 

Weight of seed (gramst) 

Weight of straw " 

Weisrht of roots " 



25 

20 
0.3 
1.8 
2.3 



25 
55 
4.5 
14.9 

7.7 



24 
50 

1.3 
11.4 

4.6 



27 

39 
1.3 
5.5 
3.9 



27 
61 

4.2 
34.5 
17.3 



* 2^ centimeters = about 1 inch. 1 1 gram = 15^ grains. 

It is evident that while the sand was able to supply considerable 
potash, and some phosphoric acid, it could furnish scarcely any 
nitrogen to the plants. This is just what might be expected. The 
sand — glacial drift — is believed to have been brought from the 
regions northward, and to come from disintegration of the 
Connecticut river sandstone and the adjacent metamorphic rocks, 
which latter were the original source of the sandstone also. These 
rocks are mainly gneiss and mica schist, interspersed with trap. 
The sand consisted mainly of quartz, feldspar (largely orthoclase), 
and mica. A superficial examination showed also what seemed to 
be particles of hornblende, trap, and other minerals which I have 
not found opportunity to determine. These minerals contain con- 
siderable potash, and very little phosphoric acid. A soil so nearly 
destitute of vegetable matter can have or hold but extremely little 
available nitrogen. What this sand wants to make it fertile, is 
something to help it to hold water ; to disintegrate its minerals, and 
make their plant-food available ; to gather plant-food from the air, 
and to retain what it gets until used by plants. Given moisture, 
and the vegetable matter that muck, green crops ploughed under, 
and roots might furnish, and it could supply mineral food for a 
great deal of produce. 

The purpose of these experiments was, as I have said, very for- 
eign to the study of the means for reclaiming the Wallingford 
6 



42 

plains. The only point to whirh I now rail attention is the ratio 
of roots, tops, and seeds in the dilferent products. These I think 
worth adding to the growing list of observations which will some 
time bo large enough to permit inductions of value to both science 
and practice. 



V. Observations upon the Quantity and Composition 
of the Roots of Clover, Timothy, Wheat, and other 
Plants. 

It is very apparent that feome of the chief deficiencies of our 
existing knowledge of the laws of the nutrition and growth of 
plants must be supplied, if at all, by the study of their subterra- 
nean organs. The roots which a crop leaves behind have a great 
deal to do with the fertility of the soil for the crop that follows. 
And what is of still greater moment, the peculiarities of the roots 
of the plant are important factors of its capacity for gathering 
its food from the soil. In view of these facts, it has seemed to me 
worth the while to gather a number of specimens of roots and 
determine, as closely as practicable, their amounts and composition. 
A vacation stay near Orono, Maine, afforded an opportunity to 
secure some samples on the farm of the Maine Agricultural Col- 
lege at that place. The labor was mostly performed by Messrs. 
W. Balentine and A. M. Parrington, without whose lively interest 
and accurate pains-taking the tedious details of the work could not 
have been reliably carried out. 

The method of getting the roots was essentially as follows. A 
rectangle two feet by one was measured off accurately as possible, 
and the surrounding earth dug away so as to isolate a column of 
two square feet horizontal section, and as deep as any appreciable 
quantity of roots could be traced. The soil was taken up, weighed, 
spread upon a smooth floor, well mixed, and a certain part reserved. 
This latter was carefully worked over, and all roots coarse enough 
to be seen with the naked eye and conveniently separated were 
picked out, cleared from adhering earth as well as possible by 
shaking, washed with water, dried, and preserved. Both soil and 
sub-soil were thus treated. Samples of soil with the remaining 
fine roots were in several cases picked over with aid of a lens and 
fine pincers ; but the amount of roots obtained was so small as to 
make only a small fraction of one per cent, of the whole. As a 
good deal of time — nearly a week — was required for picking over 



43 

each sample, separation of the fine roots was in the other cases 
omitted. When the tops were standing at the time of taking the 
roots, the amount on the two square feet was also estimated, as was 
also done with the stubble and refuse orga.nic matter in a number of 
cases. The main object of these trials was to learn how to do the 
work. If I were to attempt it again, I should take especial 
pains to secure the tops in all cases. But I am persuaded that, for 
accurate studies of the physiology of root development, trials, in 
ordinary soils must be in many respects unsatisfactory, becaiise of 
the presence of other plants and parts of plants than those to be 
investigated, and more particularly the extreme difficulty of distin- 
guishing the fine roots and freeing them from adhering earth. 
These difficulties can, it seems to me, best be overcome by growing 
the plants in pots, or in solutions. At the same time, observations 
of this sort are very valuable to show the ways of development, 
amount and composition of the roots of crops as ordinarily grown. 
The partially completed investigations herewith given, 1 hope some 
time to continue, and to add comments on the results of other 
investigations on this extremely important subject. 

AMOUNT OF ROOTS, STUBBLE, ETC., LEFT BY DIF- 
FERENT PLANTS. 

Clover Roots. — Sample A, was taken, July 14, 1875, from a very 
heavy clay soil, which was pronounced by brick -makers a "first 
quality brick-clay." The upper layer, to a depth of S^ inches, 
designated as "surface soil," was somewhat disintegrated, and was 
lighter in color than the sub-soil. The section, two feet long, one 
foot wide, eight inches deep, weighed, after exposure to air on a 
floor forty-and-eight hours, 132 lbs. The sub-soil was very hard, 
compact, and on cutting with a sharp knife, as was done in isolat- 
ing the column used for the experiment, left a very smooth, bright 
surface. On exposure to the air it "slaked," as the brick-makers 
say, and became quite friable. The fractures of the fresh clay 
often revealed surfaces of a very dark color, along which the fine 
roots had made their way. The roots were traced to a depth of 
three feet two inches from the surface of the ground, though 
nearly all were in the surface soil, and very few could be found 
below a depth of two feet. The herbage was mostly alsike clover 
{Trifolium hyhridum). There were occasional plants of red clover, 
witch-grass {^Triticum repens), red top {^Agrostis vulgaris), and 



44 

apparently some species of Poa. It was easy to distinguisli the 
roots of these plants with reasonable accuracy, and they were 
rejected. The clover, cut in full blossom July 14th, weighed on 
the surface of 2 x 1 ft., HT) grams ; on one half a square rod 
of which the experimental surface formed a part, 59^ lbs. The 
roots from the surface soil 8^ inches deep, weighed 17.7 grams, 
those of the sul>soil 1 gram. 

Clovek. Sample B, was gathered iu an adjoining field, and from 
one of the plots from which the clover-tops had been taken for 
analysis as described in article on Analyses of Foods and Feedijiy 
Stuffs, page 324, where details as to soil, etc., were given. The 
roots were taken August 14th, from one of the plots on which the 
clover had been cut when nearly ripe, July 17th. The first 
twelve inches of the soil was called "surface-soil," and the next 
eighteen inches, . "sub-soil." Below this depth of two feet six 
inches, very few roots could be found. Though there was little 
else than red clover in the tops as gathered, considerable amount of 
roots of timothy and other plants and weeds were found in the 
soil. The sample of roots of which analysis is described below 
was from the same plot as this. 

Timothy Roots, A, B, and C. Samples from Maine Agricultural 
College farm, as above. For descriptions of soil, etc., see Analyses 
of Timothy Grass and Hay, page ji48. The roots here referred to 
were from same plots from which the samples of tops were taken 
for analysis. 

Wheat. Samples from same farm. Soil, clay loam, heavy clay 
sub-soil ; seeded to grass in 1870. Turned up, treated with stable 
manure and ashes, and planted to potatoes. In 1876, manured 
again, sown in spring with wheat, and top-dressed with small 
amount of nitrate of soda. Roots taken at different times as per 
table. The presence of a small growth of weeds whose roots 
could not be accurately distinguished from those of the clover, 
helped to make the results unsatisfactory. 

Barley. Soil and previous treatment not differing essentially 
from above. For the same i-easons the results are not perfectly 
accurate. 

Oat.«;. From same farm, but sandy loam, with sandy sub-soil. 
Had been in grass until turned up, dressed with manui-e, and 
sowed to oats. 



45 

Millet (Hungarian). From same farm; soil, clayey loam. 

Timothy, Meadow D, Native grasses, Pasture E; and Native 
Grasses, Meadow F. These samples were taken by Mr. Balentine 
from the farm of Mr. J. M. Hubbard, Middletown, Conn. They 
were from contiguous lots of low, moist land, the surface of 
which was largely made of washings from a neighboring hillside. 
The soil is a reddish or brownish sandy loam. The timothy was 
newly seeded. The native grasses had been in for some years. The 
experiments are very interesting because of the large amounts of 
roots and stubble found. The sample of roots of timothy was 
taken close by two plots of one square rod each, whose produce of 
hay harvested June 29th, early in blossom, averaged at the rate 
of 4,156 lbs. per acre. Similar plots contiguous to the place where 
the sample of roots of native grasses was taken, averaged at the 
same date at the rate of 3,120 lbs. of hay per acre. 

From the above descriptions, the following table, in which are 
gathered results of the somewhat desultory observations will, I 
trust, be intelligible. The variations in some cases are wide; for 
instance, see Timothy B and C, but the weighings were carefully 
made, and duplicate notes agree, and I can find no grounds for 
doubting the accuracy of the work at all. 



46 



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47 



Composition of Roots of Wheat, Timothy, and Glover. 

Analyses of samples of roots of "Clover B," "Timothy B," and 
" Wheat 4," skillfully executed by Messrs. Jordan and Woods gave 
results as follows. The roots were separated from the soil as above 
described.* 



IN ONE HUNDRED PARTS OF AIR DRY ROOTS OF— 


Wheat. 


Timothy. 


Clover. 


Water 


8.04 
91.96 
18.33 

0.87 


10.97 

89.03 
9.78 
1.23 


8.64 


Water-free substance 

Ash crude . 


91.36 
8.94 


Nitrogen . 


2.42 







Analysis of the crude ash gave : 



IN ONE HUNDRED PARTS OF CRUDE APH OP ROOTS OF — 


Wheat. 


Timothy. 


Clover. 


Pure ash 


36.66 

61.57 

1.77 

1.07 

1.90 


60.53 

32.75 

6.72 

2.85 

3.34 


64.43 




26.08 




9.49 




7.67 


Potash 


11.48 







The pure ash would thus contain 



IN ONE HUNDRED PARTS OF PURE ASH OF — 



Phosphoric acid. 
Potash 



Wheat. 



2.92 
5.18 



Timothy. 



4.70 
5.52 



Clover. 



11.91 
17.83 



Analyses of Soils and Corrections in Analyses of Roots for 
Adhering Soil. 

As stated above, considerable amounts of soil adhered to the 
samples of roots in spite of the most thorough washing that was 
felt to be allowable. This is of course to be expected. An attempt 
to learn approximately how much of the valuable ingredients found 
in the analysis of the roots could have come from the adhering soil 
was made, as foUows : 

It was assumed that all the sand and insoluble substances in the 
thoroughly burned roots came from the soil, and that the fine soil 
in which the roots grew would have the sam6 composition as that 



* For analytical details see the separate Keport of the Station. 



48 

whit^h adhered to them, and that, consequently, if the fine soil were 
ignited and treated with acids as had been done with the roots, 
tlu' i»n)portion of rjitrogon, phosphoric acid, and potash obtained 
from the soil thus treated would have the same ratio to the insolu- 
Ijle residue as in the soil which adhered to the roots. The insoluble 
residue in the crude ash of the roots would thus give a measure of 
the ingredients therein which came from the soil. These sub- 
tracted from the total would leave what properly belonged to the 
roots. This assumption is doubtless nearly correct. The possible 
error in such small quantities is entirely insignificant. 

Accordingly, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and insoluble 
residue were determined in samples of soil from which the roots 
had been separated, by precisely the same methods as employed in 
the root analyses. The soils were prepared for analysis by passing 
through a very fine seive — holes 0.5 millimeters diameter — to 
remove sand and fragments of roots. The soils being of fine clay 
left very few fragments of sand in the seive. Results of analyses 
follow: 

Wheat Soil, Timothy Soil, Clover Soil, 
per cent. per cent. per cent. 

Sand and insoluble matters, 77.20 65.88 65.42 

Phosphoric acid in acid extract,. . ... 0.115 0.03 0.06 

Potash in acid extract 0.135 0.13 0.15 

Nitrogen, 0.20 0.15 0.14 

The following table shows the original and corrected figures for 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash : 





Pure Ash. 


Water- and Sand-pree Roore. 


ROOTS 
OP 


PhoB. Acid. 


Potash. • 


Nitrogen. 


Phos. Acid. 


Potash. 




Orig- 
inal. 


Cor- 
rec'd. 


Orig- 
inal. 


Cor- 
rec'd. 


0"?- 

inal. 


Cor- 
rec'd. 


Orig- 
inal. 


Cor- 
rected. 


Ori^. 
inal. 


Cor- 
rect'd. 


Wheat 


3.20 
4.72 
11.95 


2.92 
4.70 
11.91 


5.46 

5.62 

17.91 


5.18 

5.52 

17.83 


1.23 
1.44 
2.73 


1.19 
I.4.'? 
2.72 


0.265 
0.326 
0.772 


0.241 
0.325 
0.770 


0.454 

0.;588 
1.159 


0.412 


Timothy, 

Clover, 


0.381 
1.153 







Combining results of analysis with the weights of the soils as 
roughly determined above, we should have in the soil of one acre 
to the depth of one foot: 



4& 



In One Acre to Depth or 1 Foot. 



Wheat Soil,.. 
Timothy Soil, 
Clover Soil. . . 





In Acid Extract. 










PhoBphoric Acid. 


Potash. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


5772. 


3319. 


3896. 


4537. 


972. 


4861. 


4735. 


2029. 


5074. 



Summary of Observations on Roots. 

The amounts of roots and of valuable ingredients per acre by 
above figures would be as follows : 



POUNDS PER ACRE. 


Roots 

gathered, 

air dry. 


Roots 

free from 

sand. 


Roots free 
from sand 
and water. 


Nitrogen. 


Phos.Acid 


Potash. 


Wheat 

Timothy B., 


lbs. 

595 

2576 

1460 


lbs. 

579.6 
2235.8 
1310. 


lbs. 
527.1 
1982.4 
1193. 


lbs. 

6.5 

28.3 

32.6 


lbs. 
1.3 
6.4 
9.2 


lbs. 
2.2 
7.6 


Clover B., 


13.8 







But the roots are only part of what the crops leave behind. The 
stubble of the crop, stubble and roots of weeds, and the fragments 
of stems, leaves, and other refuse organic matter that are strewn 
upon the surface of the ground, amount to a good deal, also. The 
weights of the different materials, as calculated per acre, are given 
below. As stated above, the samples were all from clay soil except 
the oats and the grasses D, E, and F, which came from sandy soils. 
The last three were from the farm of Mr. J. M. Hubbard, Middle- 
town, the others from the farm of the Maine Agricultural College. 



50 



PLANTS. 



Clover, A., 

Clover, B., 

Hungarian, 

Wlieat, A. 1, just before heiidinj^ 
Wheat, A. "2, begiiiiiiug to blos'in 

Wheat, A. 3, stcd in milk 

Wheat, A. 4, seed ripe, 

Oats 

Barloy, A. l.Just helure heading 
Barley, A. 2, Ix-ginuing to hlos'in 
Barley, A. 3, seed in milk,. . . . 

Barley, A. 4, seed ripe, 

Timothy, A., 

Timothy, B., 

Timothy, C. , 

Timothy, Meadow, D., 

Native Grasses, Pasture, E 

Native Grasses, Meadow, F.,. . . 



WKIUUT8 or AlK-URY SUBBTANOK PSB 








Stubble 


Tops. 


Stubble. 


RoolH. 


and rooiH 
of weedH. 

lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


1657 


.... 


869 






1273 


1460 


2881* 


6194 


341 


720 


159 


2537 


224 


582 


186 


4489 


394 


802- 


159 


5412 


418 


735 


- 499 


7092 


595 


716 


427 


5037 


216 


293 


470 


2448 


187 


408 


240 


3938 


240 


423 


317 


4907 


509 


470 


615 


7 1 .')5 


355 


336 


749 


4250 




855 




5072 




2516 


836 


5253 


2045 


5215 






3102 


2060 






2165 


3438 







3462 


4202 





ReftiBC 

orjjanic 
lutitter. 

Ib8.~ 



715 
312 
322 



206 
120 



* Mostly timothy. 



Obskrvations by Dk. V'oklckkk. 



The following- are results of examinations of roots of clover in 
various soils in England, by Dr. \^>elcker, from an article in the 
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society for 1869, which has been 
copied in a number of publications in this country. Unfortiinately 
Dr. Voelcker's analyses are not expressed in such ways as to per- 
mit calculations of the amounts of soil which adhered to the roots. 
It is evident that in some cases the sand must have made a large 
proportion of the whole weight. 



ROOTS OP 



lbs. of 
water-free 
! roots per 
I acre. 



Water-free roots 
contain of Nitrogen. 



" Good " Clover, 1 st year, ; 4155 

" Bad " Clover, 1 st year, { 1 550 

" Thin " Clover, 2d vear, J 7026 

" Gooil " Clover, 2d year, 6503 

" Good " Clover, 1st year, mown twice, 1493 

"Good "Clover, 1st year, mown once, , 3622 




• 51 



Obsehvattons by Dr. Weiske. 

The following are results of observations by Dr. Weiske on the 
amounts and composition of roots and stubble gathered to a depth 
of ten inches, from a soil, probably in a high state of cultivation, 
on the farm of the Agricultural Academy at Proskau, Germany. 



ROOTS AND 
STUBBLE OF 



Rye, 

Barley, 

Oats,' 

Wheat, 

Red Clover, 
Buckwheat, 

Peas 

Lupine, 



3400 
1515 
2200 
2240 
6580 
1630 
2400 
2800 



Roots and stubble, 
water-free, cont'ned 



Nitrogen. 



Per cent. 



1.26 
1.15 
0.71 
0.68 
2.15 
2.18 
1.76 
1.76 



lbs. per 
acre. 



62 
22 
25 
22 
180 
45 
53 
58 



Ash free from Coa] and Carbonic Acid 
contained: 



Phosphoric Acid. 



Per cent. 



1.55 
3.15 
2.08 
1.08 
3.91 
2.35 
2.24 
2.53 



lbs. per 
acre. 



24 
11 
28 
11 
71 
10 
14 
13 



Potash. 



Per cent. 



1.90 
2.59 
1.48 
1.70 
4.26 
1.97 
1.70 
3.13 



lbs. per 
acre. 



30 
9 
24 
17 
77 
9 
11 
16 



From the results obtained of Dr. Voelcker, Dr. Weiske, and our- 
selves, we gather the following figures for the amounts per acre of 
roots, and of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in the roots of 
sundry plants.* 

* Since the above was sent to the printer, my attention has been called to some 
statements in the Report of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, 1877-8, 
pages 129 and 153, by Mr. Flint, Secretary of the Board, evidently based upon 
a misreading of Dr. Voelcker's article. Mr. Flint says : 

" The amount of nitrogen left by a crop of clover in the soil was carefully inves- 
tigated by Prof. Voelcker, and he found that it was from two and a half to three 
tons per acre. He found that on soils where clover had been grown, not only is 
all that nitrogen collected and stored up in the soil by the clover, but it is left, 
when spring arrives, in a vastly better condition to take and carry on a grain 
crop than any fertilizers which can be applied in the spring, — a most important 
consideration. .... Bear in mind that this nitrogen is changed into nitrates, 
nitrate of ammonia, nitrate of potash, and other forms of nitrate which are avail- 
able immediately, when spring opens, for the use of your crops." 

Dr. Voelcker actually says, (Jour.Roy. Agr. Soc.IV. 1868, page 422,) (1) "Dur- 
ing the growth of clover a large amount of nitrogenous matter accumulates in 
the soil." (2) " This accumulation, which is greatest in the surface soil, is due 
to decaying leaves dropped during the growth of clover, and to an abundance of 
roots, containing, when dry, from 1)^ to 2 per cent, of nitrogen." Dr. Voelcker 
found from 31 to 100 lbs. of nitrogen per acre to be left behind in the roots of 
crops of clover. The finest roots could not be separated from the soil, but allow- 



52 



ROOTS. 



I)k. Voelcker, EtJt;lan<l : 

" (irood (^lover," 1st year, 

" Bad Clover," Ist year, 

" Thin Clover," 2d year 

" Good Clover," 2d year, 

Clover, 1st year, mown twice, 

Clover, Ist year, mown once 

Dr. WeisivE, Germany, Rootsand Stubble 

Rye, 

Barley, " " 

Oats, 

Wheat, 

Red Clover, " " 

Buckwheat, " " 

Peas, " " 

Lupine, " " 

Reported Herewith : 

Wheat 

Timothy, 

Clover, 





Amounts 


per Acre. 






Phosphor. 
Add. 


Root». 


Nitrogen. 


IbP. 


IbH. 


lbs. 


Water- 






free. 






41.5.'> 


100. 




1.5.50 


31. 




7026 


66. 


29.5 


6.50.3 


65. 


27. 


1493 


24.5 




3622 


51. .5 




Air-dry. 






3400 


62. 


24 


1515 


22. 


II. 


2200 


25. 


28. 


2240 


22. 


11. 


6580 


180. 


71. 


1630 


45. 


10. 


2400 


.53. 


14. 


2800 


58. 


13. 


Water and 






fiand-frec. 






.527 


6.5 


1.3 


1982 


28.5 


6.5 


1193 


32.6 


9.2 



Potash, 
lbs. 



30. 

9. 

24, 



9. 
11. 
16. 



2.2 

7.7 
13.8 



In Conclusion. 

As I have said, our observations were more for the sake of learn- 
ing how to conduct the investigations needed than with the expec- 
tation of gaining from them any conclnsive results. It is evident 
that results obtained on a few square feet, and so afEected by earth 
adhering to the roots, are very liable to error. I believe, however, 

int^ that these, and the leaves dropped on the surface, contained as much nitrofjen 
as the coarse roots, there would be left behind by a clover crop, from 60 to 200 
lbs. of nitrogen. The remainder of the "two and a half to three tons per acre" 
of nitrogen which Dr. Voelcker found was not " collected and stored up by the 
clover," but belonged to the .soil, which he also analyzed. Concerning the change 
to nitrates, Dr. V^oelcker says, (loc. cii., page 409), "Although probably the 
greater part of the roots and other remains of the clover cro]) may not be decom- 
posed so thoroughly as to yield nitrogenous food to the succeeding wheat crop, it 
can scarcely be doubted that a considerable quantity of nitrogen will liccome 
available by the time the wheat is sown." That is to say, that instead of the 
whole of the two and a half or three tons of nitrogen of the soil being changed 
to nitrates, " which are available when spring opens for the use of your crops," 
part of the 60 to 200 lbs. of nitrogen belonging to the remains of the clover, may, 
in Dr. Voelcker's opinion, which is doubtless correct, soon become available. The 
fact that the statements referred to are made by so high an authority, and in .so 
prominent a place, and have been widely (juoted, seems to demand this correction. 



53 

that the results here given do at least prove what was to be 
expected from the start, that — 

(1.) In a given plant the ratios of roots to tops, and more espec- 
ially the total amounts of roots in different circumstances of growth, 
are extremely variable. (2.) Consequently the current statements 
as to the amounts of plant food left behind by a crop in its roots, 
based as they are upon few observations, must be accepted with a 
good deal of latitude. (3.) The stul^ble and refuse organic mat- 
ter do more to fertilize the soil than is generally supposed. (4.) 
What is most wanted to clear up the doubtful points respecting the 
effect of roots upon the fertility of the soil, is a large number of 
accurate and detailed observations. Although our present knowl- 
edge is so incomplete, the following facts are worth noting : 

1. Clover. The amounts of clover roots (with the adhering 
soil), air-dry, varied from 1,300 to 6,500 lbs. per acre. The nitro- 
gen in them ranged from 31 to 65 lbs. per acre, and in one case, 
where stubble and roots were reckoned together, rose to 180 lbs. 
per acre. The smallest quantity of phosphoric acid in roots was 9 
lbs.; the largest in roots and stubble, 77 lbs. per acre. Potash in 
like manner ranged from 13 to 77 lbs. per acre. It is easy to see 
why clover makes such a rich manure, and why some farmers say 
they " would rather have the clover below the ground than what 
is on the top." 

As Dr. Voelcker has shown, clover is an excellent preparatory 
crop for wheat, because its roots contain so much plant-food. His 
experiments indicate that when clover is mown for hay there is 
more development of roots than when it is fed off by sheep, and 
that when grown for seed the roots are still more -strong and 
numerous. The enriching power of clover is due to the matter 
which is stored up in the roots, as well as to that which is left on 
the ground as stubble, leaves and fine stems when it is mown, or 
ploughed under. Hence the propriety of letting it stand, rather 
than to cut early, when it is wanted to enrich the soil for another 
crop. 

2. Timothy and other Grasses. The amounts of roots above 
varied from 850 to 5,000 lbs. Roots and stubble together came as 
high as 7,600 lbs. per acre. But timothy roots, like the tops, are 
not so rich in the valuable ingredients as clover. The timothy 
leaves nearly as much substance behind as clover, but it does not 
enrich the soil so much ; at the same time, what it does leave is 
very valuable. 



64 

;-{. The Cereals. Wheat, barley, and oatf* leave less roots behind 
than timothy, at least if we are to jud^e from th(? above ligures, 
and have about the same composition. They do comparatively 
little, therefore, to enrich the soil for followinpj crops. 

4. The roots and stubble in the meaduws and pastures, "Tim- 
othy B and C and D," the " Native grasses," the •' meadow F," 
and the "Pasture E," amounted to from 1^ to nearly 4 tons per 
acre. The nitrogen in the soils where the roots of Timothy B 
grew, taken to a depth of one foot, amounted to 4,500 lbs. per 
acre. The soil of Timothy B was pretty well run out. None of 
the others were in a high state of cultivation ; yet they all had 
large stores of plant food available, and ready to be made availa- 
ble. The nitrogen in the surface soil varie(] from 4,500 to 5,800 
lbs., the phosphoric acid from 970 to 3,300 lbs., and the potash from 
3,900 to 5,000 lbs. per acre. Does not this illustrate very forcibly 
a fact that many farmers forget — that they need not only to manure 
their soils, but also to use every means to utilize the plant-food 
they have on hand ? And do not such facts help us the better to 
understand why tillage, fallowing, lime, and other means for 
bringing into action the materials the soil can supply, are such 
important factors of good farming ? 

METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 

The roots were ground fine enough to pass through a wire sieve having fifteen 
meshes to the centimeter. 

Crude Ash. The crude ash was obtained by igniting at a low heat, extracting 
the residue with water, strongly igniting the insoluble portion, then adding the 
water extract, and evaporating the whole to dryness. 

Pure Ash. The crude ash contained with the ash of the roots; also that of a 
large (juantity of soil that could not ho separated from the roots. The amount 
of insoluble matter was estimated by extracting the crude ash with hot aqua 
regia, and then with a mixture of sodium carbonate and hydroxide. To the 
insoluble residue thus obtained the carbonic acid, determined by ignition with 
potassium dichromate, was added the sum subtracted from the whole, and the 
residue designated as "pure ash," as said above. 

This quantity does not truly represent the amount of pure plant ash, since it 
includes all the silica alumina, iron, lime, etc., that was extracted from the 
adhering soil by the strong acids used. The percentage of pure ash is in this 
way made to appear largest in the wheat roots, which is doubtless incorrect, and 
is easily explained by the large amount of soil that adhered to the wheat roots. 
Corrections for phosphoric acid and potash, extracted from the adhering soil, 
and remaining in the ash, were made as explained later. 

Phosphoric Acid. One or two grams of ash were treated with hot concentrated 
nitric acid, the whole evaporated to complete dryness, moistened with concen- 
trated nitric acid, and extracted with water. 



55 

In this solution the phosphoric acid was determined with ammonium molybdate. 
The residue from the nitric acid solution was afterwards treated with hot aqua 
regia, but a careful test gave no evidence of the presence of phosphoric acid in 
the solution thus obtained. 

Potash. Nearly a gram of the ash was digested with hot concentrated chlo- 
hvdric acid, afterwards evaporated to dryness, the residue moistened with some 
of the strong acid, and then extracted with water. 

In this solution the potash Avas determined in the usual manner by the use of 
platinic chloride. 

Nitrogen was determined in the ordinary way with soda lime. 

AKALYTICAL DETAILS — WHEAT ROOTS. 

Water. 6.870 airdry=6. 315 w. fr. = 91. 92 per cent. w. fr. 6.9625 air-dry= 
6.404 w. fr.=92.00 per cent. w. fr. Average=9l.96 per cent. w. fr. 100.— 91.96 
w. fr. =8.04 per cent, water. 

Ash. 9.3238 air-dry = 1.7238 crude ash = 18.48 per cent, crude ash. 11.6763 
air-dry=2.1353 crude ash = 18.269 per cent, crude ash. 8.4357 air-dry =1.5487 
crude ash=l8.36 per cent, crude ash. 9.269 air-dry = 1.687 crude ash = 18. 20 per 
crude ash. Average= 18.33 per cent, crude ash. 3.8591 crude ash =2.376 insol- 
uble residue=61.57 per cent, of insoluble residue in crude ash. 14.12 crude ash 
= .0025 C02=1.77 per cent. COg in crude ash, 100— (61.57 + 1.77) = 36.66 per 
cent, pure ash in crude ash. 18.33 per cent. X. 3666=6.72 per cent, pure ash in 
air-dry. 

Pkos. Acid. 1.709 crude ash = .0325 Mg., P, O7 = .0208 Pg 05=1.22 per cent. 

P, O5. 2.14 crude ash=.037 Mg, P, 07=0237 P, 05=1.11 per cent. P^ O5. 
Average=1.17 per cent. Pg O5 in crude ash. 1.17^-3666=3.20 per cent. P.^Og 
in pure ash. 

Potash. 1.5462 crude ash=. 156 K, Pt C1b=.0301K2O=1.95 per cent. K,0. 
1.699 crude ash=.1812 K, Pt Clg=.0349 K30=2.05 per cent. K^O. Average= 
2.00 per cent. K^O in crude ash. 2.00-f-. 3666=5.46 per cent. K^O in pure ash. 

Nitrogen. 20 c. c. H, SO^ Sol. . = 10199 N=38.2 c. c. (N H^) HO Sol.l c. c. (N 
H J HO=.0026693 N. 1.286 air-dry=33.9c. c. (N H J HO=.10199N. .090509 
N=.01148N=0.89 per cent N. 1.2175 air-dry=34.1 c.c. (NH^) H0 = . 10199 N 
— .09lb2N=.01097=0.90 per cent. N. Average=.90 per cent. N in airdry. 

TIMOTHY EOOTS. 

Water. 6.4058 air-dry= 5.7003 water-free=88.99 percent, w. fr. 6.9898 air- 
dry=6.2265 w. fr.=89.08 per cent. w. fr. Average=89.03 per cent. w. fr. 
100. — 89.03=10.97 per cent, water. 

Crude Ash. 12.2602 air-dry = 1.1 962 crude ash=10.00 per cent. 12.7780 air- 
dry = 1.2783 crude ash=9.76 per cent. 6.4053 air-dry=.6259 crude ash=9.77 per 
cent. 6.9898 air-dry = .6693 crude ash=9.58 per cent. Average=9.78 per cent. 

Pure Ash. .171 crude ash = .056=37.75 per cent, insoluble residue. .0595 
crude ash=. 004=6.72 per cent. CO3. 100. — (37.75H-6.72)=60.53 per cent, 
pure ash in the crude ash. 9.78 per cent. X .6053=5.92 per cent, of pure ash. 

Phosphoric Acid. 1.199 crude ash=.0533 Mg^ P^ O,=.0341 P^ 05=2.84 
per cent. P, O5. 1.2497 crude ash=.0562 Mgg Pg 0, = .0359 P^ Og = 2.88 per 



56 

cent. Pjj Og. Avorage=2.86 per cent. P„ O^ in crude ash. 2.86 per cent, 
-f-. 6053 — 4.72 ])er cent. P„ O^, in pure ash. 

Potash. .6005 criiile a8h = .1052 K„ Pt Clfl=.02027 K„ 0=3.38 per cent. K._, 
O. .6264 crude ash .1113 K., Pt CI,. --.02145 K„ () 3.42 percent. K„(). 

Nitrogen. 20 c. c. Hj. S(>^ Sol.. -10199 N -38.2 c. c. {N H ,) Sol.. HO 1 c. c. 
(NH,) HO 002669 N. 1.7978 air-dry =29.9 c. c. N H^ HO =.10199 N— 07983 
N=..02216 = 1.23 per cent. N. 1.7578 airdry--30 c. c. N H^ HO--. 10199 N 
—.08009 Nr=r.0219 N =1.23 per cent. N. Average=1.24 per cent. N in air-dry. 

CLOVBR ROOTS. 

Water. 6.800 air-dry=6.213 w. fr. = 91.37 per cent. w. fr. 5.964 air-dry = 
5.449 w. fr.=-91.36 per cent. w. fr. Average-- 9 1.37 per cent. w. fr. 100. — 
91.37=8.63 per cent, water. 

Ash. 9.5642 airdry=.8545 crude ash=8.93 per cent, crude ash. 9.135 air- 
dry=.816 crude ash=8.93 per cent, crude ash. 9.2935 air-dry = .829 crude a.sh = 
8.92 per cent, crude ash. 9.2407 air-dry-- .8287 crude ash = 8.97 per cent, crude 
ash. Average=8.^4 per cent, crude ash. 1.6705 crude ash = .4355 insoluble res- 
idue=2G.08 insoluble residue. .079 crude ash=.0075 COo=9.49 per cent. C0„. 
100. — (26.08 + 9.49) = 64.43 per cent, pure ash in crude a.sh. 8.94 per cent.X 
.6443=5.76 percent, pure ash in air-dry. 

Phosphoric Acid. .8545 crude ash=.1022 Mg, P, O„=.0654 P„ 05=7.65 
per cent. P, O.,. .816 crude a8h=.0986 Mg^ P, O,=.0639 Pg 06=7.73 per 
cent. P., O^. Average=7.69 per cent. P„ O^ in crude a.sh. 7.69 per cent.-r- 
.6443 = 11.95 percent. P„ O^ in pure ash. 

Potash. .8308 crude ash=.497 K^ Pt Cl,.=.0958 K„ = 11.53 per cent. 
Kg O. .826 crude a8h=.4945 Ko Pt Cl«=.093 K„0 = 11.54 per cent. K^, 
O. Average=11.54 per cent. K.^ O in crude ash. 11.54 per cent.-r.6443= 
17.91 per cent. K, O in pure air. 

Nitrogen. 20 c. c. H.. SO.i = . 10199 N=38.2 c. c. (N H^) H O. 1 c. c. (N HJ 
HO=.002669 N 1.4705 air-dry=24.9 c. c. (N HJ HO=.10199 N— .07035 N= 
.03164 N=2.41 per cent. N. 1.291 air-dry=26.35 c. c. (N HJ HO=.10199 N 
— .07035 N=.03164 N=2.45 per cent. Average=2.43 per cent. N in air dry. 

Wheat Soil. 

Nitrogen. 20. c. c. Ho 804=46.3 (N H^) H0 = . 10199 N. 3.340 air-dry= 
43.3c. c. (NH^) HO=.10199N.— .09538 N=00661 N = .0.20 per cent. 3.25()air- 
dry=43.5 c. c. (N H4) H0 = . 10199— .09582 N = 00617 N=0.19 per cent. 3.470 
air-dry=43.15 c. c. N H^ H0=. 10199 N— .09505 N=00694 N=0.20 percent. 
Average, 9. N=0.20. 

Phosphoric acid. 10.316 grams gave 0.1 18 per cent. Po05 ; 10.326 grams gave 
0.1 12 per cent. P^OS. Average, 0.1 15 per cent. V.,05. 

Potash. 12.326 grams gave .132 percent. K^,0; 11.026 grams gave .138 per 
cent. K2O5. Average, .135 per cent. KoO. 

Insoluble residue. 12.33 grams soil gave 9.560 grams, =77.02 per cent, insol- 
uble residue. 11.026 soil gave 8.45 granis,=76.67 per cent, insoluble residue 
Average, 77.2 per cent, insoluble residue. 



57 

Timothy Soil. 

Nitrogen. 20. c. c. H, S 0^=46.3 c. c. N H^ HO=10199 N. .5.290 air dry = 
42.35 c. c. N H^ H0=. 10199 N .09329 N. = .0087 N=0.16 per cent. 5.510 air- 
dry=42.30c. c. N H^ HO=.10199 N— .09398 N = .0088 N.=0.16 percent. 6.440 
air-dry=42.2 c. c. N H^ H0 = . 10199 N.— .09296 N=. 00903 N. = .014 per cent. 

Phosphoric acid. 11.390 air-dry = . 0055 Mg^ P^ 0=0.03 per cent. Po 0.6 = 
12.370 air dry=.0O5 Mg^ P^ 0^=0.03 per cent. P^ Og. Average=0.03 per 
cent. P^, O5. 

Potash. 12.730 air dry=102 K^ Pt 01^=0.15 per cent. Ko O. 12.38 air-dry 
= .085 Kg Pt Cly=0.11 per cent. Kg O. Average=13 per cent. K^ 0. 

Insoluble residue. 12.370 air-dry=7.976 insoluble residue=66.0 per cent. 11.390 
air-dry = 7.490 insoluble re8idue=6&.76 per cent. Average = 65.88 per cent. 

Clover Soil. 

Nitrogen. 20 c. cH^ SO^=46.3 N H^ HO = 10199 N. 4.800 air-dry =43.3 c. 
c. N H4 H0=. 10199 N— .09538 N.=0066l N.=0 13 per cent. 4.6300 air-dry = 
43.35 c. c. N H4 HO=.10199 N— 09549 N =.00650 N.=0.15 per cent. 3.140air- 
dry=44.35 c. c. N H^ HO =.10199 N.— .09769 N.=.0043 N=0.13 per cent. 
Average =0.14 per cent. 

Phosphoric acid. 12.440 air dry = .0115 Mgg P^,0, = 0.06 per cent. Pg O^. 
12.500 airdry=.012 Mg^ P2 0^=0.06 per cent. P, O5. Average=.06 per 
cent, v., O5. 

Potash. 11.640 air-dry =.0835 K^ P Clg=0.14 per cent. K^ O. 10.190 air- 
dry=.0815 K^ Pt CI, =0.15 per cent. K2 O. Average=.15 per cent. K^ O. 

Insoluble residue. 12.500 air-dry = 8. 200 residue=6.5.60 per cent. 12.440 air- 
dry 8. 114 residue=65.23 per cent. Average=65.42 per cent. 



VI. Notes on the Amounts of Water in American 
Feeding Stuffs. 

The fodder tables rapidly coming into use in this country 
are taken from European sources. The few analyses of feed- 
ing stuffs thus far made on this side of the Atlantic have 
usually shown less water in the air-dry materials than is found 
in the corresponding European products. It is probable that 
this difference is a general one, and due to the dryer atmos- 
phere. Some light is thrown upon the subject by the follow- 
ing data, which will at least suffice to show the need of more. 

Timothy and other Grasses and Hays. 
European. Wolff {^Mentzel & v. Lengerke Landio. Kalendar, 
18Y8) and Dietrich & Kunig (^Zusammensetzung d. Fidterstoffe, 1874) 
give figures as follows : 
8 



58 

woi-pp. Average. 

Timothy yriisij, 7O.0 

'riinotliy hay, I4.3 

Mixed hay, poor to fair, 14.3, very f^ootl, 15, oxtra f,'oo(l, 16, 1 5.1 

UIETItK'll & kAnki, 1871. 

Mixed grasses (37 samples, maximum 20.0, miniiiuim 1 1.'29), 14.6 

Aftermath (6 samples, maximum 15.6, minimum 12.3), 13 9 

A7nerican. The following determi nations were made on samples 
of timothy gathered on the farm of the Agricultural College at 
Orono, Maine, in 1876 (see descriptions in full under ^^ Analyses of 
Feeding Stuffs"'). Tliey were weighed when freshly cut, July 1st to 
Aug. 9th, cured under cover and weighed again, Sept, "id, at 
which time samples of one kilogram each were put in small bags 
and sent to Middletown. Here they were kept in a laboratory 
storeroom, which was not warmed except by heat from adjoining 
rooms. Portions were taken for analysis, and the remainder 
weighed and returned to the bags. May 17, 1878, some of the 
bags were hung in the loft of a barn, and weighed from time to 
time. The bags (of tliin cotton cloth) were weighed at the start, 
and when the samples were taken for analysis a similar empty bag 
was kept in the barn- loft witli the samples and weighed with them, 
and its variations, which were slight, calculated on the weights of 
the bags holding the samples. From the different weighings and 
the moisture once determined, the percentages of moisture were 
computed. Of course the small samples hung in the barn loft must 
have varied more than hay lying in the mow would have done. 

Results were as below : 

Water in Timothy cut at Different Periods of Growth. 

Just Full Just out Ripe, 
headed bloaa. ofbloss. . _ Av'ge. 

PERIODS OP GROWTH. OUt. Jul.l3. Jul.32. "S' '^• 

Jul.l. perct. perct. perct. perct. 
per ct. 

Freshly cut, .somewhat wilted, 58.85 57.06 .56.50 57.47 57.47 

Freshly cured, Sept. 2, 1876, 11.90 13.22 12.99 13.90 12.82 

Feb. 23, 1877, in laboratory storeroom, 6.06 7.34 7.02 7.7(1 

May 17, 1878, in barn, alter ,><ome days 

dry weather, 10.33 10.95 10.64 

May 20, 1878, in barn, damp day, slightly 

rainy, 10.15 10.95 10.55 

May 24, 1878, in l>arn, after 3-4 days 

dry weather, " 7.46 9.69 8.58 

June 11, 1878, in barn, rainy day, after 

3 days' rain, 13.51 13.34 13.43 

July 17, 1878, in barn, moist day, after 

some days hot weather, " 11.93 11.99 1196 

Range of cured samples in barn, 13.90 to 7.46 

Average per cent, of water in cured hay, 1 1.33 



59 

The freshly-cured samples. Sept. 2d, doubtless came nearer the 
average conditions in practice than the others. The following 
determinations were made in samples of hay taken from barns in 
Middletown. They came from some distance below the surface 
of the piles of hay. 

Moisture, 
per cent. 
Timothy, from Loveland's livery stable, May 26, 1878, 

after period of rain, 15.45 

Timothy, from Steele's livery stable, May 26, 1878, after 

period of rain, 15.68 

Timothy, from private barn, March 10, 1877, in moist 

weather, 9.99 

Mixed hay, from private barn, March 10, 1877, in moist 

weather, 10.10 

Average, 12.81 

Prof. Storer (Bulletin of the Bussey Institution, I. 347) notes a 
sample of hay taken from a barn in Rochester, Mass., March, 1875, 
as containing only 7.80 per cent, moisture. 

Averaging the results obtained with samples as actually found 
in the barn, we have : 

WATER, PER CENT. 

Largest. Smallest. Average. 
Four samples of timothy, freshly cured, Sept. 2d, 13.90 11.90 l-i.82 

Five samples of timothy and other hays from barns, 

in March and May, " 15.68 7.80 11.80 

Average of 9 samples from barns, 12.34 

Of course more observations are needed to determine range for 
different seasons, places, etc. Probably it will be found not far from 
right to assume 12.5 per cent., or one-eighth of the whole, as a fair 
average for water in timothy and mixed hay in barns in New 
England. 

Clover grass and hay. 

European. The figures of Wolff and of Dietrich & Kcinig are: 

WOLFF, 1878. Moisture, Aver- 

per cent. ages. 

Green clover, before blossom, 83.0 

Green clover, full blossom, 80.4 

DIETRICH A KONIG, 1874. 

Green clover, before blossom (4 samples ; maximum 86.09, 

minimum 77.27), 82.83 

Green clover, full blossom (9 samples ; maximum 85.14, 

minimum 70.51), 80.41 

WOLFF, 1878. 
Clover hav (poor, 15.0; medium, 16.0; very good, 16.5; 

extra, 16.5),* 16.00 

DIETRICH & KONIG, 1874. 

Clover hay (17 samples; maximum 22.9, minimum 16.00),* 18.38 

* {2}^ lbs. each.) 



60 

American. Samples of clover from Orono, Me., cut June 22- 
July 26, 1S75, and treated as those of timothy, above, gave the 
following : 







i 




a 










o . 


S 


s 










2?5 


o 


3« 


S 




WaTKU in Cl.OVEK Cl'T AT DiFFEIlENT PERIODS 


£2 


O • 


oi;' 








OP UUOWTH. 


<2 2 






"5 


^ 






aiH^ 


"^ s 


i"^ 


•-S 


tr 






.fl^ 


S>-i 


o 




«B 






It 


a 


« 


6 








•? 


a 


3 
-•-3 


a 


< 


Aug. !l-19. 1875. 


Freshly cured, - - - - 


14.42 


14.59 


14.77 


15.55 


14.83 


June 16, 1876. 


In Ptofe-room, - . . - 


11.06 


12.62 


11.25 


13..55 


12.35 


Feb. 33, 1S77. 


'» " . . . . 


7.16 


7.26 


7.50 


766 




May 17, 1878. 


In barn, after eome days dry 














weather. 




10.79 


10.4i 




10.60 


May 20, 1878 


" damp day, slightly 














rainy. 




11.08 


10.23 




10.66 


May 24, 1878. 


" after feveral days dry 














weather, - - . 




9.84 


9.47 




9.66 


June 11, 1878. 


" rainy, after three days' 














niin. 


14.1.3 


13.59 






13.86 


July 17, 1878. 


" moist day, after sev- 














eral very hot days. 




13.33 


12.54 




12.94 



Kanj,'e in barn, from 9.47 to 15.55. Mean, 12.51. 

The freshly cured samples averaged 14.83 per cent, moisture 
against 12.82 per cent, in the timothy. So the samples in 
the warm barn-loft averaged higher in water content than the 
timothy samples. The European figures likewise give more mois- 
ture in clover than in timothy. Wolff assumes 14.3 per cent, for 
moisture in ordinary hays, in which 12.5 per cent, seemed a fair 
average here. He assumes 16 per cent, for clover. Probably 
14.3 per cent., one-seventh water, would not be far out of the way 
as a general average for cured clover hay in barns in New 
England. 

Hungarian Grass and Hay. 

Three samples of Hungarian grass, of which analyses were given 
under "feeding stuffs," gave, when freshly cut, 78.30, 71.70, and 
70.24 per cent., and freshly cured, seven to twelve days'after cut- 
ting, 23.24, 21.87, and 22.23 per cent, of water respectively. The 
largest percentages of water were in the earliest cut, and the 
smallest in the latest cut samples. Wolff gives for Hungarian 
green fodder 75 per cent, water, and for the hay 13.4 per cent., 
evidently from a very small number of samples. In lack of the 
needed data I have assumed for the green fodder 75 per cent, and 
for the hay 16. 7 per cent., one-sixth water. 



61 

Fodder Corn. 

European. Wolff assumes for the green fodder 84-85 per cent. 
Dietrich & Konig give analyses of eight samples varying from 
81.14 to 87.19 per cent., and averaging 85 per cent. For the dry 
fodder Wolff assumes 15 per cent. 

American. Messrs. Johnson and Jenkins found in two samples 
as gathered, 85.04 and 87.18 per cent, in the same field cured, No- 
vember 11th, 27.92 and 27.59 per cent., and in the same from barn, 
February 10th, 54.95 and 53.76 percent. We found in samples 
that had been kept in the laboratory store-room some months, 
11.55, 9.00, and 8.81 per cent. In this wide range I have selected 
25 per cent, as the basis for computations in analyses reported 
herewith. 

To resume. — With the data thus at hand, the following seem 
to me proper proportions of water to assume for feeding stuffs in 
New England : 



Timothy hay, 


12.5 per cent. 


Clover hay, 


1 4.3 per cent. 


Hungarian hay, 


16.7 


Corn fodder, cured, 


25.0 


Hungarian grass, 


75 


Corn fodder, green, 


85 



American and European Products Compared. 

The following comparison of percentages of water in American 
products reported herewith, and in corresponding European ones 
from the tables of Dietrich & Konig, shows that ours average 
dryer than those on the other side of the Atlantic. It is to be 
noted that the American analyses were all made in Massachusetts 
and Connecticut : 

American. European. 



Hats. 



Meadow hay, - - - - 9 15.60 7.80 13.34 46 20.00 11.59 14.59 

Clover hay, - ... 4 15.55 9.47 13.51 20 22.80 16.00 18.38 

Grains, etc. 

Maize, 14 15.10 8.08 11.67 12 19.14 9.16 12.;38 

Wheat, 2 13.52 12.75 13.04 9 14.60 11.32 13.16 

Wheat bran, middlings, etc., 15 13.30 10.47 11.64 20 13.80 10.04 13.80 

Thanks are due to Mr. B. V. Tompkins for important aid in 
carrying out the above investigations. 



62 

VII. Investigations of Seeds. 
Investigations of thirty-two samples of seeds herewith reportefl 
were made by Messrs. Jenkins and Warnecke. The following 
table gives (1) kind of seeds; (2) name of party from whom 
sample was obtained ; (3) name of person furnishing sample; (4) 
per cent, of pure seed ; (5) per cent, of the latter whicli germinated; 
(6) agricultural value: 

INVESTIGATIONS OF SEEDS. 











Si 

0.0 


go 


„1 


«0 


u 








,J3 


CQ a 


« o 




a 


Names. 


From. 


OOLLECTED BT. 


-o St 




5g. 


l-o 


3 
2 








g§ 






as 

o ^ 










ft< 


a, » tc 


<'- 


S P 


1 


Red CloTer, 


Southmayd & Gardner, Mid. 


W. Atwater, 


97.2 


73. S 


71.7 




2 


White Clover, 


11 11 


G. Warnecke, 


99.6 


93.3 


90.1 




3 


Timothy, 


R. B. Bradley, New Haven, 


E. H. Jenkins, 


97.4 


89.2 


86.9 




4 


Red ClOTer,' 


" " 


" 


97.2 


82.7 


80.4 




5 


Broccoli, 


Dept. Agri., Washington, 


T. S. Gold, 


100. 


89.5 


89.5 


'3M' 


6 


Cabbage, =■ 


" " 


" 


100. 


88.2 


88.2 


3.83 


7 


• • 3 


11 11 


" 


100. 


95.0 


96.0 


2.77 


8 


Red Clover,'' 


S. D. Crosby, N. Y., 


N. Hart, 


93.4 


82.76 


77.3 


1.33 


9 1 " ^ 


U 11 


" 


94.6 


81.5 


77.1 


1.6192 


10 Timothy, 


K 1( 


" 


97.2 


89.8 


87.3 


3187 


H 


Medium Clover, 


Pratt & Foster.W. Cornwall, 


T. S. Gold, 


86. 


82.0 


67.7 


1.530 


12 


" 


11 11 


" 


94. 


87.3 


82.1 


1.523 


13 


Timothy, 


11 11 


" 


97.6 


87.0 


84.9 


0.315 


14 


Carrot,' 


11 119 


" 


91.1 


12.3 


11.2 


0.915 


16 


Celery,' 


11 ll» 


" 


98.2 


43.0 


42.2 


0.315 


16 


Broccoli, 


11 llil 


" 


100. 


52.8 


52. S 




17 


Onion," 


11 110 


" 


100. 


82.0 


82.0 


3.'528 


18 


'• 10 


11 119 


11 


1(X). 


77.0 


77.0 


3 275 


19 


• ' 11 


11 im 


" 


100. 


60.0 


60.0 


3.883 


20 


11 12 


11 119 


" 


100. 


55.3 


55.3 


3.610 


21 


Carrot,' 3 


• 1 mi 


" 


94.7 


21.0 


19.9 


1.128 


22 


11 14 


11 119 


•' 


92.2 


34.7 


32.0 


1.128 


23 


Tumip.iii 


11 119 


" 


100. 


60.6 


60.5 


2.868 


24 


11 16 


11 119 


" 


100. 


74.5 


74.5 


2.248 


26 


• I 17 


11 119 


" 


100. 


58.0 


68.0 


2.943 


26 


11 18 


11 11 


" 


100. 


73.0 


73.0 


1.939 


27 


Barley,' 9 


Dept. Agri., Washington," 


" 


100. 


97.7 


97.7 


21.786 


28 


VVheat,2" 


" " 


" 


100. 


97.0 


97.0 


36.760 


29 


Timothy, 


S. D. Crosby, New York, 


N. Hart, 


98.8 


98.75 


97.6 


0.373 


30 


Red Top, 


" " 


" 


20.9 


49.3 


10.8 




31 


Carrot,^' 


Dept. Agri., Washington. 


T. S. Gold, 


96.8 


47.8 


46.3 


0.936 


32 


Tumip,22 






100. 


95.5 


95.5 


1.666 



1 Mammoth red clover. 

2 Bacalam late (imported). 

3 Large Brunswick (imp'd). 
* " Western Clover." 

•■' " Extra Clover need.'' 
" Early French Short-horn. 
' Incomparable Dwarf White. 
» Yellow Dutch. 



" Bore label of Bri9;gR & 

Bro., Rochester, N. Y. 
'" Yellow D.anvers. 
' ' Westfield Large Red. 
'-' White i^ilver-skinned. 
'^ Large White Belgian. 
'^ Large Orange. 
'•'* Yellow Swedish (imp'd). 



' " Large white flat Norfolk. 
" Russian. 

"■ Purple-top, strap-leaved (imp'd). 
'" Chevalier (imported). 
■-" Karly Spring Tonzelle (imp'fl). 
"' .lames' Intermediate (imp'd). 
'-"- Early white flat Dutch, strap- 
leaved. 



As the methods employed are still somewhat new in this 
country, I repeat briefly some of the explanations previously made 
of the ways by which the examinations were made. They are the 
same as used by Dr. Nobbe, of the experiment station at Tharaud, 
Saxony. 



63 

The sample, which should have been selected in such way as to 
insure a fair average of the lot to be tested, is thoroughly mixed, and 
a small part of it withdrawn, with very special precautions to make 
it represent the average quality of the whole. This portion, of 
from 2 to 50 grammes* according to the kind of seed, is next 
carefully weighed, and then picked over by the examiner, seed by 
seed, with the aid of magnifying glasses and other instruments 
designed for the purpose. Each seed passes under the eye, the 
genuine seeds, those corresponding with the label under which 
they were sold, are put by themselves in one place, and all foreign 
matters, whether seeds, chaff, dust, or sand, in another. The pure 
seeds are weighed by themselves, and the impurities also. 

In this way we learn the per cent, of pure seed. For instance, 
suppose we take four grammes of seed and find, after picking it 
over, one gramme of impurities and three grammes of pure seed. 
We make then the proportion, 4: 3 : : 100 : 75 ; i. e., our sample 
contains 75 per cent, of pure seed and 25 per cent, of impurities. 
The foreign seeds are examined botanically to see if there are 
among them any which would produce parasitic plants, or weeds 
poisonous to cattle. If there are, such an article should be at once 
rejected by the farmer. The germinating power of the pure seeds 
is next ascertained, as follows : Two lots of two hundred seeds each 
are carefully counted out, and, after being weighed, are allowed to 
soak in distilled water twenty-four hours. They are then trans- 
ferred, the one lot to an apparatus of porous earthen ware, where 
they can be kept moist and protected from dust, the other to a 
wrapper of bibulous paper which is also kept moist. From time 
to time the seeds are examined, and those which have germinated 
are counted and removed. 

The date of the counting and the number which had germinated 
at the date are entered in a book kept for the purpose. At the 
expiration of ten days, or two weeks in most cases, the trial is con- 
cluded. The number which have sprouted, all told, is found, and 
to it is added one-third of the number which have remained sound 
during the experiment, and yet show no diposition to sprout. The 
sum is divided by two and the quotient taken as the number of 
seeds in one hundred, i. e., the per cent, which will sprout. The 
object in making two sprouting trials, is to provide a check on any 
possible mistake which might pass unnoticed in a single experi- 
ment. 

* l-15th to 1 3-4ths ounces. 



64 

As was said, these four hundred seeds were weighed previous 
to the sprouting trial. From this we calculate the weight of one 
thousand kernels. This is not an unimportant item in judging of 
the good quality of the seed. Heavier seed, other things being 
equal, is to be preferred to light seed. 

From the per cent, amount of pure seed in the sample, and tlie 
per cent, of pure seed capable of germination, we calculate its 
" agricultural value," which expresses the percentage amount by- 
weight of the sample which may be expected to furnish plants of 
the kind indicated by the label. 



VIII. Notes on Analytical Methods and Apparatus. 

As an agricultural report is liardly a proper place for 
descriptions of apparatus and methods of analysis used in the 
chemical laboratory, 1 omit accounts of a not inconsidei-able 
amount of work performed with the purpose of getting new 
light on some of these matters which are of importance to 
the chemist, referring briefly to the main results. 

THE QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATION OF FATS. 

In the " Proceedings of the American Chemical Society," 
Vol. II, 1S78, p. 84, were published accounts of some investiga- 
tions on the methods of estimating fats with ether, from 
whicli it appeared that the use of commercial ether involved 
error by bringing foreign substances into the extract ; ti)at 
the most accurate results were obtained with pure ether and 
dried substance, and that substances that alter in composition 
or solubility on heating in air, should be dried out of access 
of air. It was stated that the effect of drying on the solubility 
and the amount of the extract was being investigated. Further 
work in this line has shown that drying in air may cause a 
considerable loss of fats, whicli is probal)ly due, in the main 
at least, to their assuming an insoluble form by oxidation. I 
hope soon to publish results of several hundred determina- 
tions bearing upon these and allied points. 



65 



ESTIMATION OP MOISTURE. 



By use of a common drying-cylinder, in which zinc is sub- 
jected to the action of dilute acid slowly admitted at the top 
from a reservoir above, and the hydrogen allowed to pass out 
through the doubly-perforated cork through wliich the acid 
enters, the zinc sulphate solution escaping through an exit-tube 
from the tubulature at the bottom, we find it easy to keep up 
a flow of hydrogen, fast or slow at will, and continuing for 
days and weeks, without taking the apparatus apart. By 
passing the purified hydrogen into bottles made for the pur- 
pose, and heated in a drying-bath, we are able to make esti- 
mations of water, as it seems to us, more conveniently than 
by the ordinary methods. Details of the apparatus pro- 
cesses will, I trust, be published before long. I may add, that 
by use of this apparatus, and one for fat extraction, simi- 
lar to one described in the article in the Proceedings of the 
Chemical Society above referred to, but arranged to hold more 
condensing-tubes, and to stand on a shelf, it is not difficult 
to make twelve dryings with as many fat extractions daily. 



IX. Report on Farm Experiments with Fertilizers. 

The report of the Connecticut Board of Agriculture for 1877 
contained an account of experiments by a number of farmers 
with fertilizers procured for them by the Experiment Station. 
The experiments were also reported in some of the Agricul- 
tural Journals, and awakened considerable interest. Several 
of the experimenters wished to continue their trials, and 
others expressed a desire to undertake like work the next 
season. At the request of the American Agriculturist, I drew 
up some plans and directions for experiments, which that 
journal proposed to its readers, arranging to provide samples 
of fertilizers for the purpose, of tested quality and at prices 
just covering cost. The plans were altered from those of 
1877, as the season's experience had suggested. With each lot 
of fertilizers was sent a pamphlet, containing explanations and 
directions for the experiments, and blanks on which any one 
9 



66 

who might cure to take tlie needed trouble were requested to 
report the results. Tiie Mapes Formula & Peruvian Guano 
Company, by whom the fertilizers were put up, supplied num- 
erous sets to their customers ; the Vermont Agricultural Col- 
lege distributed a iiuml)er among the farmers of that State; 
the Maine Agricultural College made several series of experi- 
ments with them. Representatives of Agricultural Societies 
and prominent farmers in various parts of tlie country joined 
in the enterprise, so that the trials were mad6 from Canada 
to Florida, and from Maine to Wisconsin. 

Purpose ok the Experiments. 

The ostensible object of these experiments was to work upon 
farmers' soils. Underneath tin's lay, in my own thought, a deeper 
purpose, to work upon their owner's minds. And in this regard, 
at least, the outcome of botli seasons' experience has been most 
gratifying. 

The principle upon which these experiments is based is briefly 
this : The chief oflQce of fertilizers is to supply the plant-food that 
our crops need and our soils fail to furnish. It is not good econ- 
omy to pay high prices for materials which the soil may yield in 
abundance, but it is good economy to supply the lacking ones in 
the cheapest way. The most important ingredients of our common 
commercial fertilizers are nitrogen, jjhosphoric acid, and jiofash, 
because of both their scarcity in the soil and their high cost. It 
is in furnishing these that guano, phosphates, bone manures, potash 
salts, and most other commercial fertilizers, are chiefly useful. To 
test the needs of the different soils with reference to these sub- 
stances was the special, and the action of the different fertilizing 
materials with different crops the general, object of the experiments. 
As an application of science to farming by practical men, who get 
their living from the labor of their bi-aiiis and hands upon their 
farms, and who have found in them a means of testing the needs 
of their soils, and the ways of supplying them, and who have 
made an important addition to the sum of our knowledge of the 
ways in which soils furnish plant-food and crops use it, I am sure 
the accounts of their experience will be widely welcomed. 

I may say that both the paper which proposed them and the 
parties who put up the fertilizers displayed a great deal of enthusi- 
asm in the undertaking, doing this, as I happen to know, at 



67 ■ 

pecuniary cost to themselves, and with no prospect of gain other 
than would come with the credit for encouraging the enterprise. 

The details of the experiments may best be explained by the 
following extracts from the pamphlets sent with the fertilizers. 

The Fertilizers used in the Experiments 

Were as shown in the list below, which is taken from the A77ieri- 
can Agriculturist for March and April, 1878. 



FERTILIZING MATERIALS. 



Bag No 



L 
II. 

in. 

IV. 
V. 

VI. 
VII. 



Kind. 



Amount. Valuable Ingredients, per 100 lbs 



Nitrate of Soda 

Dissolved Bone-Black 
Muriate of Potash . . . . 

Nitrate of Soda 

Dissolved Bone-Black 
Dissrlved Bone-Black 

Muriate of Potash 

Nitrate of Soda 

Dissolved Bone Black 
Muriate of Potash . . . . 
Phister 



Set a. 




Nitrogen, 
Phos. Acid, 
Potash, 

( Nitrogeu, 

I Phos. Acid, 
Phos. Acid, 
Potash, 
Nitrogen, 

I Piios. Acid, 

( Potash, 



15 per cent. 

1.5 " 
50 

5 

10 " 

9 " 

20 

3.46 " 

6.92 " 

15.38 " 



1.40 



Cost of Set A. 



EXTRAS. 



la. 

lb. 
Ilia, 
lllb. 

lYa. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 
XII. 

XIII. 



Sulphate of Ammonia. . . 

Dried Blood 

Sulphate of Potash .... , 

Kainit 

Dried Blood 

Dissolved Bone-Black . . , 

Pure Bone- Meal 



Fine Bone Dissolved . 
Dry Ground-Fish 



No. 1 Peruvian Guano . . . . 

Rectified Peruvian Guano, . 
" Oneco," 



15 lbs, 
25 " 
20 " 
30 " 

20 I " 
30 ( " 

50 " 
50 

50 



40 



50 



( Nitrate of Soda, |15 )" 

I Muriate of Potash |20 ) " 



Nitrogen, 
Nitrogen, 
Potash, 
Potash, etc., 
( Nitroixen, 
( Phos. Acid, 
i Nitrogen, 
/ Phos^Acid, 
Nitrogen, 
Phos. Acid, 
S Nitrogen, 
} Phos. Acid, 

! Nitrogen, 
Phos. Acid, 
Potash, 
( Nitrogen, 
< Phos. Acid, 
i Potash, 
\ Nitrogen, 
I Potash, 



20 per cent.l 

10 " I 

37 " 

13 " 

4 " 

9 

3.25 '- 

20 " 

2 " 

16 " 

7 " 

6 

8.24 " 

12 " 

2 " 
2.80 " 

16.90 " 

3.40 " 

6.42 " 

28.57 " 



.95 
.80 
.85 
.35 

[ 1.25 

I 1.25 

I 1.25 

i 1.20 

} 1.40 

1.50 
1.30 



The composition and costs of the fertilizers are more fully stated 
below. It is assumed that the contents of each bag are applied to 
one-tenth of an acre. The " price per ton" covers cost of the ma- 
terials unmixed, in ton lots, at market rates, plus $5.00 per ton for 
freight. 



68 



EXPERIMENTAL FERTILIZERS. 



Fertilizbk Used. 



FuRNiBUiNo Valuable 
Imqredients. 



a 

a 
jg 

I, 

II, 

m, 

IV. 



VI. 

vn. 

la. 
16. 

ma. 
niA. 

IVrt. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 



xni. 



Kind. 



Nitrate of Soda 

Dissolved Bone-Black . . 

Muriate of Potash 

f Nitrate of Soda 

\ Dissolved Boiie-Black . . 

! Dissolved Bone-Hlack . . 
Muriate of Potash 
Nitrate of Soda 
Dissolved Bone-Black... 
Muriate of Potash 

Plaster 

Sulphate of Ammonia.. 

Dried Blood 

Sulphate of Potash 

Kainit 

(Dried Blood 

( Dissolved Bone-Black. . . 

Pure Bone-Meal 



Fine Bone Dissolved. . 

Dry Grouud-Fish 

No. 1 Peruvian Guano, 
"Standard," 



Rectified Guano, 
"Oneco," 



Lbs. 
per 



Nitrate of Soda 1501 

Muriate of Potash i200 i 



200 

.300 

200 

150) 

.300/ 

noo I 

200 I 

150) 

300 J 

200) 

200 

150 

250 

200 

300 

2001 

800/ 

500 
500 
500 

400 



500 



39.00 

40.00 10.00 



42.00 
42.00 



52.50 



10.50 
10.50 



58.00 11.60 



13.13 



Kind. 



Nitrogen 

Phosphoric Acid. 

Potash 

f Nitrogen 

I Phospliqric Acid. 
/ Phosphoric Acid . 

I Potash '..... 

( Nitrogen 

< Phosphoric Acid . 
( Potash 



.58.00 10.13 



Nitrogen 

Nitrogen 

Potash 

Potash 

f Nitrogen 

( Phosplioric Acid . 

( Nitrogen 

I Phosphoric Acid. 

(Nitrogen ... 

1 Phosphoric Acid. 

( Nitrogen 

) Phosphoric Acid. 

(Nitrogen 

< Phosphoric Acid.. 

(Potash 

( Nitrogen 

-! Phosphoric Acid. 

/ Potash 

/ Nitrogen 

I Potash 



^ 








e o 


Z^ 


3 O 


«■-; 


O u 


• 2 


1- 


3- 


16.0 


32.0 


16.0 


48.0 


60.0 


loo.o 


5.3 


24.0 


10.7 


48.0 


9.6 


48.0 


20.0 


100.0 


3.7 


24.0 


7.4 


48 


15.4 


100.0 


20.5 


.31.0 


10.5 


26.0 


4.0 


80.0 


12.5 


37V^ 


4.2 


21.0 


9.6 


48.0 


3.5 


17.5 


22.5 


112.5 


2.0 


100 


14.0 


70.0 


7.7 


.39.(1 


7.5 


37.5 


8.3 


■Vi.'2 


15.5 


6.2 


3.7 


14.8 


2.8 


14.0 


16.9 


aj.5 


3.4 


17.0 


6.6 


24.0 


28.6 


10.(1 



§5 

$7.50 
5.2.^ 
4..50 
5.68 
5.25 
5.2.''' 
4..50 
5.(;3 
5.25 
4.50 



6.75 
5.63 
(;..50 
225 
4..50 
5.25 
2.37 
7.113 
2.(13 
8.47 
2.93 
7..56 
5.88 
4.71 
l.(K) 
2.70 
9.30 
1.13 
5.63 
4..-.0 



Plans for the Experiments. 

1 give herewith plans for experiments, dividing them, for 
convenience, in three classes, some extremely simple, inex- 
pensive, and easy ; others more complicated and costly, but 
ail useful. , 



1. EXPERIMKNTS ESPECIALLY FOR TESTING SoiLS. 

Suppose a farmer, wishes to ask his soil : What fertilizing mate- 
rials do you most need in order to bring me crops ? " Or, to state it 
more fully : " Of the ingredients of plant-food tvhich my crops must 
have, tohat ones can you furnish from your oivn stores, and what ones 
must I give you to make up the deficiencies in your supjjly .^" 

For this, I suggest an experiment in which the three ingredi- 
ents of plant-food most important from the agricultural point of 
view, viz., Phosphoric Acid, Nitrogen, and Potash will be used, 
each by itself, two by two, and all three together. 



69 

SET A. 

I. Nitrate of Soda, - - 20 lbs. Nitrogen. 

II. Dissolved Bone-Black, - - 30 " Phos. Acid. 

III. Muriate of Potash, - - - 20 " Potash. 

Y-y ( Nitrate of Soda, - - 15 ) " (Nitrogen. 

■^ * •'j Dissolved Bone-Black, - - 30 } " J Phos. Acid. 

-y j Dissolved Bone-Black, - - - 30 / " ( Phos. Acid. 

• \ Muriate of Potash, - - - 20 j " J Potash. 

i Nitrate of Soda, - - - 15)"^ Nitrogen. 

VI. } Dissolved Bone-Black, - - - 30 [ " ] Phos. Acid. 

( Muriate of Potash, - - - 20 ) " (Potash. 

VII. Plaster, - - - - 20 " 

That is tu say, on one plot a complete fertilizer would he used, contained in 
bag No. VI; on another, the same, without nitrogen (bag V) ; from a third 
potash would be omitted ; while on others the ingredients would be applied each 
by itself. Nitrate of soda is chosen as the best single material, except, possibly, 
sulphate of ammonia, which could be used also to test the specific effect of nitro- 
gen ; and because nitrate of soda, like sulphate of ammonia, is a thing that our 
farmers ought to become better acquainted with. For phosphoric acid (soluble), 
dissolved bone-black, and for potash the " muriate " is selected, as these are 
among the cheapest and best forms in which the respective ingredients can be 
bought. 

The seven bags of Set A, for one-tenth of an acre each, will, with one other 
fertilizer and two unmanured plots, suffice for an acre. For the other fertilizer 
I would suggest yard-manure, unless "Extra" No. XIII, nitrogen, and potash 
with no phosphoric acid, can be bought. This would have been put in Set A 
but for the cost. Set A, with No. XIII, makes the same series as is recom- 
mended by Wolff " as a test, both of the needs of the soil, and of the height to 
which the yield at harvest can be raised under existing conditions." He 
says : 

" It is of the greatest importance to the farmer to find out which of the more 
important ingredients of plant-food his soil, in its actual condition, fails to sup- 
ply in suflBcient quantity for the production of the largest possible crops, and 
which when directly added, would therefore exercise an especially favorable and 
profitable influence. This can be done, practically, only by properly conducted 

fertilizing experiments The trials should be made on land which is exhausted, 

in the agricultural sense of the word, and would, in ordinary practice, have 
been again dressed with stable- manure." 

In addition to the regular set, it would be well to try several " extras," partic- 
ulai'ly Peruvian guano and fish, and with them, other fertilizing materials. The 
value of Mr. Bartholomew's experiment, described on page 27, was very much 
increased by the trials with ashes, leached and dry, and the manures produced 
on the farm. 

THE "NATURAL STRENGTH" OF THE SOIL TO BE TESTED. 

Let me repeat that experiments of this sort should be made on 
poor or " worn-out " soils. 



70 

The soil is not like a cistern, wliicti wc may jmiiip dry, and must then rill up 
iifjain before it can i)e of use. It is rather like a pond, which may he drained 
very low, hut whose supply Is l)einf^ continujilly renewed. This continual re-sup- 
ply of plant-food in the most important feature of its "natural strength." The 
natural strength of most of our soils suffices only for very small crops. The 
crop cannot rise above the level of the lowest ingredient in the food supply. 
The proper use of commercial fertilizers, like guano, phosphate.', potash, salts, 
and the like, is to fill up the ga])s. In a soil that has a store of available plant- 
food, accumulated by natural ijrocesses, or left over from previous manuring, tlie 
specific effect of the experinieutal fertilizers will not he so clearly marked, and 
we shall not be able to tell so well what we may expect from it hereafter. But 
when the soil has only its natural strength to depend upon, it may be expected to 
do next year, and for sometime to come, under favorable circumstances what it 
does this year with the proper fertilizers. 

2. — Experiments to Test especially the Action of Fektilizeks. 

Some may wish an answer to such a question as this : " Of the 
different fertilizers to be had in the markets, what 07ies, if any, can J 
use to advantage, and which tvill he most profitable ?" 

For this purpose, Set A entii'o, or Nos. I, U, III, and VII, sep- 
arately, any of the extras, and other articles can be used. But 
where calculations in dollars and cents are wanted, the utmost care 
should be taken to make the experiments accurate. 

I wish to call especial attentiou to nitrate of soda, Peruvian guano, fish, bone, 
and potash salts. Nitrate of soda furnishes nitrogen, about 16 per cent., in form 
ready for immediate use by the plant. It is excellent for top-dressing for grass 
and grain, especially in spring, to bring up backward winter wheat, or encourage 
the growth of grass ou pastures, meadows, and lawns. It is u.sed in immense 
(juan titles in Europe. A gentleman whom I happen to know as one of the best 
farmers in Germany, says that he considers it "a sin to try to grow oats without 
nitrate of soda." Sulphate of ammonia is similar inaction to nitrate of soda, 
and less exposed to loss by leaching out of the soil, but on the whole, I think no 
better, if as good, in its practical effects. 

Peruvian guanos, as now sold, taking into account composition, quality, and 
price, are the cheapest class of fertilizers in the market. There are different 
grades, furnishing nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and ])Otash, in varying proportions, 
and adapted to the varying wants of different soils and crops. Fish rivals guano 
in cheapness of nitrogen and phosphoric acid, and when rightly jjrepared, is often 
preferable to anything else. I hope that numbers of experimenters will try 
Peruvian guano and fish. 

FERTILIZERS FOR SPECIAL CROPS. 

Hundreds of farmers near cities and villages grow potatoes, 
onions, and other vegetables for market. Very often the addition 
of some special fertilizer, like potash salts, to the other manures 
used, will increase the crops wondei'fully. 



71 

A gentleman recently told me of a case in point from his own experience. A 
nearneighbor and himself were raising onions last season on similar soil. Each 
one of them treated his crops in the same way, except that he used sulphate of 
potash, his neighbor did not, and he got several hundred bushels more of onions 
on the same area. A few dollars invested in the potash salts increased the market 
value of his onion crop by $200 or $300. Cases like this are very common 
with potatoes and other vegetables. I would recommend experiments on such 
cro])S with potash salts, either with Sulphate of Potash (la), " Muriate" (I), 
and Kainit (U), side by side, to test the action of each, or with the Sulphate 
alone. Similar experiments will be useful on grass, corn, and clover. For these 
the "Muriate" (I) may do as well as the Sulphate (I"), and is cheaper. In like 
manner, bone, raw and superphosphated, Nos. VIII and IX, can be tried 
wherever the farmer may desire. 

These experiments, whose object is more to test the fertilizers 
than the soil, may be made on soils in better condition than would 
be appropriate for those of the first class. 

THE EXPERIMENTS TO BE CARRIED THROUGH SEVERAL, YEARS. 

But it must be borne in mind that in no experiment will the 
first year's crop tell the whole story ; that the after effects are im- 
portant ; that the crops of succeeding years will have something 
to say, and perhaps something different. Indeed, this is true of 
all the experiments, and to make them complete they should be con- 
tinued through a series of years and crops. At the same time, a 
good deal may be learned from the first season's results, and I think 
those who do them rightly, will be more ready for the repetitions 
than they were for the first trials. 

3. Exi^ERIMENTS FOR OBTAINING MoRE GENERAL INFORMATION. 

The inferences from field experiments are of general value in 
proportion as the questions are specific, the plans appropriate, and 
the trials made under known and specified conditions, in varying 
circumstances, with different crops, and through series of years. 
To the large amount of useful information obtained from field 
experiments, a great deal more can be added. 

In response to the solicitations of several persons prominently 
connected with agiicultural institutions, and of a number of pub- 
lic spirited farmers as well, the writer has suggested plans for 
more complicated experiments. Should the result be of sufiicient 
interest to warrant, they will, in due time, be made public* 

* SfC Experiments on Effect of Nitroyenous Fertilizers on Corn. 



72 
DIRECTIONS FOR THE EXPERIMENTS.* 

HAVE YOUR PLANS COMPLETE BEFORE STARTING. 

1. Read carefully the explanations, and have your plans com- 
plete and clearly in mind before starting. Proper plans at the 
outset, uniform soil for all the experiments, and poor or " worn- 
out " soils for the soil tests, plots of proper size, shape, and accii- 
rately laid out, right application of the fortilizers, good seed, 
careful measurement of crops, full notes of details, and careful 
observation of the effects of the fertilizers on succeeding crops, 
are essential to the best results. 

SELECT UNIFORM SOIL. 

2. Select soil as nearly uniform in quality as possible. There 
will be more or less variation in different parts of the same field at 
best. The less there is of this the more reliable will be the experi- 
ments. Level land should be chosen if practicable, but if it be 
sloping, let the plots run up and down the ascent so that any wash 
by rains will not transfer the materials from one plot to another. 
Of course the portion chosen for experiment must be a fair sample 
of the whole field. 

"WORN out" soils FOR SOIL TESTS. 

3. For soil tests select 'poor or " worn out " soils. You want to 
learn what the soil itself can do by its own natural strength, not 
what it will do with the aid of a store of plant food, which has 
been either accumulated by natural processes or left over from pre- 
vious manuring, and will obscure the action of the experimental 
fertilizers. For the fertilizer tests soils in a better condition may 
be taken. 

LAY OUT PLOTS ACCURATELY. 

4 Lay out the whole experimental area and the individual 
plots as accurately as you can. Drive good strong stakes firmly 
into the ground at the boundaries so that you may be able to tell 
in this and coming seasons where the divisions are. Measure with 
chain or tape, if you have it, otherwise with pole marked in feet 
and inches. 

* More concise " Directions to be Taken into the Field " accompanied each lot 
of fertilizers sent out. 



73 



LONG NARROW PLOTS. 

5. Make the plots as long as practicable, so as to make up as 
far as possible for the unevenness of the soil. To this end let the 
whole area be as long and nai'row as convenient, and the plots run 
lengthwise through it. If the seed is to be planted in rows the 
length can be adapted to the distance of the rows apart. If this 
space is less than two and one-half feet an unmanured row had 
better be left between each two strips. In general an unmanured 
strip at least two or three feet wide should be left between each 
two plots, so as to prevent the crop of one from being affected by 
the manure of another.* 

For one tenth acre plots, i^X32 rods are good dimensions. If the field will 
not allow such long strips, they may be made shorter and wider. The following 
figures will aid in calculating the dimensions ; the first column gives the width, 
and the second the corresponding length of plots of one-tenth acre for which the 
bags are intended. For half-size plots, one-twentieth acre, divide either length 
or width by two. 

ONE-TENTH ACRE PLOTS— LENGTH AND WIDTH. 
Width. Length. Width. Length, 



RODS. 


FEET 


= KDS. 


FT. 


ROD8. 


FEET. 


= RDS. 


FT. 


One-third, 


792 


= 48 




Two-thirds, 


396 


= 24 




Two-fifths, 


660 


= 40 




Three-fourths, 


352 


= 21 


K4 


One-half, 


528 


= 32 




Four-fifths, 


330 


= 20 




Three-fifths. 


440 


= 26 


11 


One, 


264 


= 16 




ft. 


FT. 


= RDS. 


FT. 


FT. 


FT. 


= RDS 


FT. 


6 


726 


= 44 




»1>^ 


379 


= 23 




6)^ 


670 


= 40 


10 


12 


363 


= 22 




7 


623 


= 37 


12 


12>^ 


349 


= 21 


2 


T}4 


581 


= 35 


3 


13 


33.5 


= 20 


5 


8 


545 


= 33 




13)^ 


323 


= 19 


9 


81^ 


513 


= 31 


1 


14 


311 


= 18 


14 


9 


484 


= 29 


5 


14)^ 


300 


= 18 


3 


9>^ 


459 


= 27 


13 


15 


290 


= 17 


10 


10 


436 


= 26 


7 


^^}4 


281 


= 17 




10^ 


415 


= 25 


2 


16 


272 


= 16 


8 


11 


396 


= 24 




16)^ 


264 


= 16 





For instance, if the seed is put in rows three feet apart, two rows will make a 
plot six feet wide. This, to make one-tenth acre, should be forty-four rods or 726 
feet long. Comparatively few farmers will have such long fields as this in one 
crop however. Three rows three and ahalf feet apart would make plots ten and 
a half feet wide and twenty five and one-eighth rods, or 415 feet long. 

* With corn, either leave one unmanured row between each two plots or culti- 
vate between the rows deep enough to cut the roots and prevent them from feed- 
ing on their neighbors' fertililizers. This " intercultural tillage " will do no harm 
and may be a decided benefit. 

10 



74 

Few appreciate the importftticc of lonp narrow strips. If the soil is even, 
small, short plots will do. But generally it will not he even, and lonfj strips are 
therefore safer. Wolff and Grouvon, who speak from many years' fxpi'rience 
and ohservation, say the whole area should be tix times as lomj as it is wide. F'or 
an area of one acre, 32 rods X 5 rods (— 160 rods) will make the lent^th jnst 
about six times the width. The ten plots of one-tenth acre, would thus be each 
32 rods X % rod. 

KERTILIZKU.^ WELL DIFFl^'SED THROUGH SOIL. 

6. The fertilizers may be applied broadcast, qr if more con- 
venient, they may be put in the hill or drill, provided, the;/ are well 
diffused throu<jh the soil. To accomplish this, they had better be 
diluted with several times their bulk of eiirth before using. The 
important points are, that they be : 

1st. Applied evenly over the plots where they belong and not 
allowed to get outside. 

2d. Well distributed through the soil. 

Experiments with concentrated fertilizers are often spoiled, just as crops are 
injured or lost through wrong application. Farmers are apt to think the manure 
must be put close to the seed or the plant will not get the benefit of it. This is 
wrong. It is not the just germinated pinntlet that needs the manure, but the 
plant, from the time it is well started until its growth is done. We want, not 
only to give the croji a good start, but to help it out on the home stretch as well. 
The roots and their branching rootlets run out in all directions in search of food, 
and the fertilizers ought to be where as many of the rootlets as possible can get :it 
them. If we distribute the fertilizers as well as wc can, the water in the soil, 
aided by the chemical and physical forces that nature keeps in operation, will do 
the rest. In illustration of this remember low well bam-manure acts when 
applied as a top-dressing long before the seed is put in. 

But if we concentrate the fertilizers in one place fewer roots will get them, and 
these may be injured by coming in contact with them or with their concentrated 
solutions in the soil. The roots will fiud their way to the manure and develop 
more where it lies, it is true, still we should not oblige them to huddle together 
in one place, but should rather encourage them to spread around, where with the 
increased capacity the fertilizer gives them, they can get the more from the soil. 
Roots joiu with other natural agents in rendering inert stores of i)lant food avail- 
able. 

Above all, do not let the fertilizers come too close to the seed. A coarse, dilute 
material like yard manure may do the plants no harm, but such concentrated fer- 
tilizers as potash salts, dried blood, or high grade superphosphates may kill them. 

Since in these experiments it is particularly important that the etfect of each 
fertilizer be fairly tested, it would be well to mix them with three or four times thfir 
bulk of 7nellow earth be/ore applying. If the latter is rich in vegetable mould, so 
mut^h the better. Moist .sawdust may be used in place of the earth, if more con- 
venient. Uo this by all means if apjdied in the hill or drill. It will be well to 
even off the ground by a shallow plowing, spread the fertilizers evenly over the 



75 

plots, and then work them in with a good deep running harrow, or turn them 
under hy very shallow plowing. When the plots are accurately staked out and the 
fertilizers carefully applied and worked in, the plow or harrow may be run across 
the plots without fear of transporting the fertilizers from one to another. Apply 
as long as possible before planting. 

UNMANURED PLOTS FOR COMPARISON. 

7. It is of the greatest importance that several unmanured plots 
be left for comparison. For six or eight manured plots, two 
unmanured will suffice ; but where there are more than that, three, 
one at each side and one in the middle, or, if the number is large, 
one in the middle and one half-way between this and each side 
would be advisable. 



8. It will be well to try "extras" and farm manures along 
with the set A, the more the better. No. XIII, nitrogen and 
potash ; No. XI, Peruvian guano ; No. XII, fish ; yard -manure, 
and if convenient, freshly slacked lime are to be especially recom- 
mended, 

ARRANGEMENT OF PLOTS. 

9. Arrangements like the following will be well : 

SET A. 



Plot No. 


Bag No. 


Fertilizers. 


0. 




No manure. 


1. 


I. 


Nitrogen. 


2. 


II. 


Phosphoric Acid. 


3. 


III. 


Potash. 


4. 


IV. 


Nitrogen and Phosphoric Acid. 


.5. 


V. 


Phosphoric Acid and Potash. 


6. 


VI. 


Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid, and Potash, 


7. 


VII. 


Plaster. 


8. 




Yard manure. 


00. 




No manure. 




sp:t a with extras. 


Plot No. 


Ba<j No. 


Fertilizer.'^. 


0. 




No manure. 


1. 


I. 


Nitrogen. 


2. 


II. 


Phosphoric Acid. 


3. 


III. 


Potash. 


4. 


IV. 


Nitrogen and Phosphoric Acid. 


5. 


V. 


Phosphoric Acid and Potash. 



XIII. Nitrogen and Potash. 



76 



Plot No. 


ling N(r. 


Fertilizers^ 


00. 




No manure. 


7. 


VI. 


Nitro{;en, Phosphoric Acid, and Poiasli 


8. 


VII. 


Phi.stcr. 


9. 


XI. 


Peruvian Guano. 


10. 


XII. 


Fish. 


11. 




Lime, 60-7.5 lbs. 


12. 




Yard mannrc. 


000. 




No manure. 



SEE THAT ALL IS DONE RIGHTLY. 

10. Attend to the work yourself. Don't trust it to the hired 
man unless you are sure he will do it better than you can. 

MAKE ACCURATE OBSERVATIONS. 

1 1 . Watch the experiments closely. Note your observations. 
Make them both as accurate and complete as you can. Vnt down 
your notes when you make your observations. Do not trust them 
to future recollection. 

REPORTS. 

12. Make your reports as full and accurate as possible. Keep 
one copy for your own future use, and send the other in so that 
your results may be compared and published with others in good 
season. The benefit will not be yours alone, but you will share 
with others the good that will come from the combined work of 
all. 

THIS PROGRAMME IS NOT AS DIFFICULT AS IT SEEMS. 

This may seem a pretty heavy programme for ordinary farmers. 
If you cannot follow the directions fully, come as near to them as 
you can. Of course the circumstances in which you work will 
require changes which your own good judgment will regulate. 



How WELL THE WORK WAS DONE Mr. ^AGE's EXPERIMENT. 

Of this 1 have no means of judging but the reports and my per- 
sonal observation in a few cases. These were very gratifying. I 
took occasion to visit Mr. Sage while he was planting the corn for 
his experiment (No. C). The land was accurately marked out in 
twenty one long, narrow, parallel plots of equal size. Each one of 
these was divided into eleven equal parts, the divisions being 
indicated by small stakes. In a little shed close to the field were 
arranged in order the seventeen small bags of fertilizers. On a 



77 

small table were a pair of small scales, a sugar scoop, paper and 
pencil. Mr. Sage was taking the bags one by one, weighing 
them, calculating one-eleventh of the weight to the half ounce, 
and weighing oS the portions. Three men were at work spreading 
the fertilizers. As each one came up he received the small lot of 
the fertilizer, mixed it carefully with earth in a pail, went to the 
short strip where it was to be put, distributed it carefully, going 
through tlie length of the strip and back again, and calculating to 
have a little left over to be put on in going over the ground the 
third time. In this way the fertihzers were applied to each divis- 
ion of each plot. The object of all this pains-taking was to make 
sure that fertilizers should be " applied evenly over each plot." 
Frequent visits convinced me that the whole experiment was con- 
ducted with corresponding care. 

Mr. Bartholemew's experiment. 
I likewise had the pleasure of visiting Mr. Bartholomew at the 
time when the crops of his experiment were being harvested. 
Nearly every hill of corn had exactly four stalks. Those of a cer- 
tain number of hills, twelve, I believe, were put in a shock. The 
ears of corn and stalks of each shock were weighed, and the 
weights noted in a schedule devised for the purpose. By a simple 
and ingenious arrangement, a spring scale was attached to a cart, 
which was driven along the rows, so that each lot could be weighed 
as it was loaded, with very little trouble. Everything, from the 
arrangement of the plots to the disposal of the corn in the crib, 
where it could be weighed and shelled after it had dried to tell 
the loss in shrinking and the number of pounds of ears to the 
bushel of shelled corn, betokened, like the thrifty appearance of 
the whole place, careful, thorough work. Of 

Prof. Farrington's experiments, 
which I also had the good fortune to see, it is sufficient commenda- 
tion to say that they had the care ordinarily given to such work 
by that gentleman and his students at the Maine State College. 
And yet, with the very great care, thoroughness, and completeness 
with which all these experiments were made and reported, so far 
as the reports indicate, a large number of others were done not 
one whit less thoroughly. I have been frequently congratulated 
upon finding such excellent men to work together in these experi- 
ments. It is not that I have found them, but that they have 



78 

sought the work, and that they represent a large elass of efficient 
fanners who can do and are doing a vast deal to advance the 
agriculture of tlie country. The intelligent, progressive American 
farmer, and his name is legion, is a good deal of a man. 

THE UEPOKTS AND THEIR VALUE. 

The plans were drawn up on condition that if any of the exper- 
imenters chose to report their results the accounts should be sent 
to me for examination. If I have ever cherished any skepticism 
as to the ability or earnestness of enterprising farmers in studying 
and learning the ways to make their farming better, it has been 
effectually removed by the number and appearance of these 
reports. 

The blanks for the purpose were sheets of paper about 11x17 
inches, with space for noting, on one side: (1) Description of soil; 
situation, kind, texture, dry or wet, depth of surface soil, character 
of subsoil, etc. — (2) Previous treatment, manuring, and yield. — 
(3) Weather during experiment. — (4) Fertilizers, and how applied. 
— (.")) Method of sowing, planting, tillage, etc. — (6) Other details 
and remarks. The other side was devoted to details of size of 
plots, dates of planting and harvesting, amounts, quality, and value 
of produce in grain, roots, tubers, stalks, etc., by pounds and 
bushels; calculated profit or loss, etc. Nearly sixty of these 
reports are before me. Some are brief, most are well filled, and 
many entirely so, while several have additional interesting and 
suggestive statements covering a number of pages of foolscap, for 
which there was not room on the blanks. 

In accuracy and fulness of detail, these reports far exceed my 
expectations. By uniting in experiments on a common plan, but 
with a great variety of places, soils, crops, and other circumstances, 
the experimenters have, besides learning about the fertilizers, 
their soils and their crops, made an extremely valuable contribu- 
tion to our knowledge of the ways plants feed, and how fertihzers 
affect their growth. 

What the Reports say. — Failures and Successes. 

Some have no decided story to tell, and some none at all, except 
failure everywhere. Corn was tried on soil not adapted to it, 
pulled up by crows and injured by worms. "A lot of small pigs 
rooted around" one experiment to its great detriment; "the rav- 



79 

ages of white grub" rendered another unreliable; potato bugs 
made havoc with a third. Frost and drought injured several, and I 
ana inclined to mistrust wrong application of the fertilizers in several 
more. "One experimenter applied only part of the fertilizers; another 
did not put them on until five days after planting; another was too 
busy to complete the weighing accurately; and yet another was sick 
and had to leave the details to the hired man. Some of the irreg- 
ularities I can account for only by unevenness of the soil. We 
can judge better of this where two or three plots were left unma- 
nured as recommended ; but most had only one, and a few 
none, for comparison. One, surprised at the high yield of his 
unmanured plot, found, on closer examination, that it had been 
getting the benefit of the drainings from the ash -heap of his maple 
sugar works. 

Indecisive Results on Rich Soils. 

One man finds "a loss all the way through," and writes, 
"According to this showing it will not pay me to use any 
manure, — not even to move my barnyard manure, which I have 
always saved and made as much of as possible. I wish you would 
write me a letter to ' brace me up.' I am getting terribly skeptical." 
Well, he gets forty-seven bushels of shelled corn to the acre on 
the unmanured plot. It appears that the field was dressed only 
two years ago with a lot of that yard manure he " makes as much 
of as possible." Land farmed as well as his report would make us 
think his is, and in condition to bear such a crop with no 
manure, might easily fail to pay for such costly applications the 
first year. And with such a store of plant food in the soil, the 
effects of the fertilizers would naturally be so blinded that the ex- 
periment would give very little clue to what the soil would need 
when it should have only its natural strength to depend upon. I 
hope he will note the results on the same plots next season. I do 
not think so many were vitiated by being made on rich soil as 
last year. 

Drouth spoiled several ; and finally some went wrong for reasons 
which are beyond the experimenter's ken or mine. But a great 
many have a straight story to tell, and tell it every time. And 
some, which in themselves seem the least decisive, are in reality 
the most instructive of all. In tabulating the results, I have ex- 
cluded quite a number ; some because there were no unmanured 
plots, others, because of some irregularities which made them seem 



80 

unreliable; and liave fjjiven oJily those which hore upon the face 
evidence of accurate work, and in which no disturbing causes were 
apparent. By the courtesy of the Vermont Agricultural CJoIlege, 
I have been furnished with reports, which are included hemi. 

The results appear in the ta])les which follow. It shouM be 
noted tliat, — 

1. The figures given by the experimenters are followed in all 
cases except the very few in which minor mistakes were apparent. 

2. In some cases the materials were applied to areas different 
from those recommended. The variations thus made in the 
amounts per acre, though considerable in some cases, do not 
materially affect the general result when al! are averaged together. 

3. The estimates for pounds per bushel of corn and potatoes 
vary considerably. Com was generally weighed in the ear, and 
the shelled corn computed, the different experimenters allowing 
from seventy to eighty pounds of ears for one bushel of shelled 
corn. Where the ears were measured, two bushels are reckoned 
equal to one of shelled corn. It is evident that the poorer yields 
appear to an unfair advantage in this way, unless the different 
qualities of produce are sorted. With corn, for instance, the small 
yields — those on the unmanured plots and with inefficient ferti- 
lizers — would have much larger proportions of poor corn than the 
good yields. A bushel, or seventy-five pounds of poor ears, would 
give less shelled corn than the same amount of good corn. The 
small errors thus introduced in the tables are to the disadvantage of 
the better fertilizers. 



81 

Experiments of 1877. 
It will be worth while to recall the results of the experiments 
reported last year. The fertilizing materials were: 



1m 


• FEKTn-IZBK. 


FURNISHIKG VALTJABLTB INGREDIENTS. 




Lbs. 


At 


Cost 




Assum- 


Lbs. 


Cost 


^'Z 


KIND. 


per 


price 


per 


KIND. 


ed per 


per 


per 




Acre. 


^ton. 


Acre. 




cent. 


Acre. 


Acre. 


1. 


Dried Blood, 


320 


$40.00 


$6.40 


Nitrogen, 


10 . 


32 


$6.40 


11. 


Dissolved Bone-black, 


320 


35.00 


5.60 


Phosphoric Acid, 


16 


51 


5.60 


111. 


Muriate of Potash, 


320 


45.00 


7.20 


Potash, 


50 


160 


7.20 


rv. 


1 Dried Blood. 


160 1 
160 ( 


37.50 


6.00 


J Nitrogen, 

1 Phosphoric Acid, 


5 


16 


3.20 


1 Superphosphate, 


8 


254 


2.85 




I Dried Blood, 


106| ) 
106|S 
106|) 






( Nitrogen, 


3.3 


lOf 2.13 


V. 


- Superphosphate, 


40.00 


6.40 


■< Phosphoric Acid, 


5.3 


17 1.87 




( Muriate of Potash, 






( Potash, 


10.7 


53i 


2.40 



Experiments resulted as follows: 

S. By Chester Sage, Middletown, Conn., on field adjacent to Experiment C, 1878. 

B 1. By W. L Bartholomew, Woodstock, Conn., on field adjacent to Experiment B., 1878. 

B 2. Experiment B. repeated in 1878, with same fertilizers, on same plots as in 1877. 

H. By R. S. Hinman, Birmingham, Conn. 

F 1, 2," and 3. By Prof. J. R. Farrington, Orono, Maine. 



&< 

?; 


No. OP Plot. 


I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 











Exj 


PERIMENTJ 


LL FERTIL] 


ZERS. 






oS 


Kind of Fer- 
tilizer. J 














No 


^t 














Ma- 


1^ 




Dried 


Superph's- 


Potash 


Mixture 


Mixt. I & 


Plaster. 


nure. 






Blood. I. 


plmte. 11. 


Salt. III. 


I&II. 


II & III. 








Crop per Acre 


bn. 


bii. 


bu. 


bu. 


bu. 






s. 


[" 


. 10.0 


20.0 


10.0 


10 


60.0 


20.0 


10.0 


Bl. 


CORN, -{ 

I 


13.7 


41.6 


15.5 


38.0 


.33.5 


19.4 


16.9 


B2. 


10.0 


30.8 


11.0 


35.4 


30:5 


11.0 


6.2 


H. 


41.8 


65.0 


41.5 


67.5 


61.1 


41.8 


33.0 


Fl. 


POTATOES, 


123.0 


172.0 


104.0 


159.6 


154.0 


112.3 


73.5 


F2. 


BEANS, 


3.1 


19.3 


4.3 


16.3 


13.0 


12.3 


9.3 


F3. 


RUTABAGAS, 




375.5 




54(5.0 


510.0 


255.0 


90.0 



^ 


No. OF Plot. 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 




Kind or Fertilizer. 


Wood Ashes. 


Farm-made Manure. 


7^ a. 


Dry. 


LeacMd. 


Hog 
Manure. 


Hen 
Manure. 


Yard 
Manure. 


S. 

Bl. 
B2. 
H. 


Crop per Acre. 

CORN, \ 


34'.9 
30.4 


37!7 
36 6 
45.0 


A\.\ 
46.6 



40.0 
54.9 
56.7 


eo'.o 



Mr. Bartholomew applied the experimental fertilizers in the pro- 
portions in the table, that is at the rate of 320 lbs. per acre. The 
other gentlemen used them on smaller areas, so as to make the 
amounts equal to 800 lbs. of each per acre. 
11 



82 

GENERAL RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS. 
Tables I and II require a good deal of study. I will try to 
briefly recapitulate some of their more striking facts.* 

Soils in which Phosphoric Acid was Especially Efficient. 
In Mr. Bartholomew's corn experiment, No. B, every plot whi(;h 
got phosphoric acid brought a good crop; every one without 
it failed. The nitrogen and potash both increased the yield, but 
reckoning a bushel of corn with its stalks at eighty cents, neither 
increased it enough to pay the cost. This experiinent was made 
on the same field as the one reported Cor 1877, No. B 1, page 370, 
in which the crop rose and fell with the phosphoric acid, while it 
paid very little attention to the other ingredients. The experi- 
iment of 1877 was also repeated in 1878, with the same fertilizers 
on the same plots, and with almost identical results. With 300 lbs. 
of superpho-sphate per acre, the yield in the experiments of 1877, 
in the same repeated in 18 78, and the new experiments in 1878, 
in every case came within one bushel of forty bushels per acre. 
With less superphosphate the yield fell off, while to get it much 
higher required other materials. Hog-manure, with superphos- 
phate, gave a very large crop. Mr. Bartholomew's experiment 
with potatoes. No. 27, was made on another field, on low land, 
the corn being on the top of the hill. The potatoes were most 
helped by the phosphoric acid, but, as seems to be oftener the case 
with them than with corn, responded profitably to the nitrogen as 
well. In the experiments of Messrs. H. B. Clarke, No. 12, W. 
C. Holman, No. 8, and S. W. Crocker, No. 29, likewise, the 
preponderating influence of the superphosphate is clear, though the 
corn in No. 12 and the potatoes in No. 29 are helped by the 
other materials also. On the other hand, in a number of cases the 
phosphoric acid did little or no good. This was the case in Mr. 
Stiles' experiment with corn, No. 4, and with potatoes. No. 26. 

Soils which kesponded well to the Potash Salts. 
In Mr. Sage's experiment. No. C, every crop with potash salts 
was large, every one without them a failure. The potash salts 
repaid their cost more than ten-fold. But while the potash was 
most important, the other materials helped, and the combination 
of the three gave by far the largest crop. This tallies well with 
Mr. Sage's experiment on an adjoining field, described last year.f 



* For full details of experiments see Special Report. 
t Expt. S, page 370. 





NT FERTILIZEI 


1 
I 








VI. 


V 




i£ 






o 




^ xT 




^ fii m 




1 Acre ^ i 2 


a 


1 Bushel tK § (2 

1 Pound =3 ^.^ ^.=H+: 


- 


i 


1 Bushel o5 >£ »£ 
1 Pound ggls-ig 




.t: -' .i OT 3 C! 




Z C S 


p- 








^ 


$15.38 


« 






m'O 




-)- 










-d 


a 


Z< =2 






(NO o 


o. 






M 
H 


Nj^ ^-^-S 


pSi 




EXPEI 


h o§2 


3s 


B 




S£ (2 


m 




Corn. 


Stalke. 


Com. 


g 


s 
^ 




hu. 


lbs. 


bu. 






84.0 
51.7 
10.0 
13.5 
27.4 
56.0 
18.5 
30.0 
20.0 
27.5 
31.0 


2,172 
2,200 

2,90b' 

3,849 
225 

"1,310 








Chester 
W.I. B 
Emmor 
Buel La 
G. Gilbe 
J. H. St 
J. J. De 
David E 
W. C. F 
Nathan 
Z. E. Ja 




(J 
B 
1 
2 

3 
4 
5 
H 
7 
8 
9 


"sio 

14.4 

10.6 
9.0 
9.4 

17.5 
7.0 
7.5 

15.0 








36.0 




11.3 






j 








A 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
16 
Ifi 


Prof. J. 
E. F. Sn 
L. W. S 
Halsev 1 
Seth H. 
C. Mille 
Charles 
Jonatha, 


39.8 
32.5 
51.2 
86. 1 
53.7 
70.5 
41.1 
31.0 


3,300 

2,870 
2,450 


"27!5' 
32.5 
55.6 
40.0 
23.0 
33.0 
26.0 






50.7 




33.9 




17 


A. B. CliolO 




32.0 




IS 


M. W. I 42 7 




31.0 




19 


H. Brad 'lO.O 




27.0 




20 


William 


72.3 


8,550 


39.0 






57.5 




32.2 




91 


James I TO -3 




42.6 




09 


Cicero I 64.0 




53.0 




93 


Ora Pau 80.6 




65.7 




24 


Edward 


76.0 




48.3 








72.7 




52.4 




Tot 


48 6 




28.9 




*InEsp 




EXPli"^^^*^^ (charred bones) adc 


of AfiirintP 


erage of 27 different expe^ 


the 


applicati 


phate 


and Mur 


late of 


Pot^ 



TABLE I. 

CORN EXPERIMENTS. 
YIELDS OF SHELLED CORN PER ACRE WITp DIFFERENT FERTILIZERS. 





1 Acre 

1 Bashel 

1 Pound (avoidupois) ' 

1 Bashel per Acre ' 

1 Posnd per Acre ' 


= (about) 0.40 Hectare. 

0.36 Hectolitre. 
" 0.45 Kilogramme. 

0.9 Hectolitre per Hectare. 
'* 1.12 Kilogramme per Hectare. 


No. of FertUizer. 

Fertilizers per 
Acre. 




1 


Nitrate of Soda 200 w 
lbs.* 


II. 

3 

n 

if 

n 


ni. 


IV. 


xin. 

.a 

^ s 


.lili 


V. 

i 1 

(S 

>22£ 
'a"s 


1 

Nitrate of Soda, 

150 lbs. 
Dissolved Bone-black, < 

300 lbs. i^ 
Muriate of Potash, 

200 Ibs.t 


vn. 

1 

s 


a 

a 


00 

1 

1 


KINDS AND AMOUNTS OF 
FARM MANURE. 

S. M. = Stable Manure. 
H. M. " Horse 
Hn.M." Hen 
Y.M. " Yard 
Hg.M." Hog 


yield op corn IN bushels witu extras. 
la. Sulphate of Ammonia, 112 pounds. 
Ilia, 
nib. 




Cost per Acre*. 


$7.50 


$5.25 


$4.50 


$10.88 


$10.13 


$9.75 


$15.38 


$0.80 


Variable. 




1 

2 

s 


NAME OF 
EXPERIMENTEB. 


STATE. 


GROUPING OF 
SOILS. 


Valuable Ingre- 
dients PER 
Acre. 




i 

f 
1 


3 

< 

M 
1^ 




III 


II 

i2£ 


3 

•a s 


So 


< 6 

oS 

|l 


"at: 
'1^ 




,v» J Dried Blood. 

*""' 1 Dissolved Bone-black. 


Z 




Corn, 
bu. 


Stalks. 
lbs. 


Corn, 
bu. 


Stalks, 
lbs. 


Corn, 
bu. 


Stalks, 
lbs. 


Corn, 
bu. 


Stalks, 
lbs. 


Corn, 
bu. 


Stalks, 
lbs. 


Corn 
bu. 


Stalks, 
lbs. 


Corn 
bu. 


Stalks, 
lbs. 


Com. 
bu. 


Stalke. 
lbs. 


Cora 
bu. 


Stalks, 
lbs. 


Corn 
bu. 


Stalks, 
lbs. 


Corn 
bu. 


Stalks 
lbs. 






c 

B 
1 
i 
3 
4 
3 
6 
7 
8 
9 


Chejter Sage 

W.I. Bartholomew.. 
Emmor K. Haight. . . 

Buel LandOD 

G. Gilbert ChUds 

•I.H. Stiles 

J- J.Dearing 

David B. Wertz 

W. C. Holman 

N'athan B. Lewie 

Z. E.Jameson 


Connecticut... 

XewTork...'." 

Vermont 

Virginia 

New Jersey. .. 

Georgia 

Pennsylvania.. 
No. Carolina.. 
Rhode Island. . 
Vermont 


PooitEST Soils. 
Yielding under 20 bush- 
els of Shelled Corn per 
Acre with No Manure. 


Ranging from 
heavy clay loam. 
No. C, to sandy, ' 
No. 9. 


11.3 

17.7 

6.4 
11.0 
5.5 

'i6!6' 

7.5 
5.0 


507 

2,250 

'l,24s' 
190 

" " 520 


21.5 

18.7 
6.9 

17.5 
3.2 

18.0 
7.5 
B.2 
9.0 
5.6 

11.0 


722 
1,160 

■ 3,6'ob' 

1,408 
121 

""570 


16.5 
39.9 
6.5 
10.3 
23.0 

n.o 

10.7 

ao.o 

17.5 
20 7 
8.5 


597 
1,640 

'2.800 

'l',i's4 
154 

" " 790' 


02,3 

19.1 
6.5 
9.2 
5.8 

42.0 
7.8 

12.5 
7.5 
7.6 

19.5 


1,598 
1,210 

'2,400 

's.im 

116 

" " 'e'l'o 


11.2 

41.9 
8.2 
10.5 
26.6 
16.0 
18.4 
32 5 
22.6 
28.8 
17.0 


566 
1,600 

3,550' 

'l,.3'44" 
223 

" " 990 


68.9 
21.1 
8.7 
15.0 


1,784 
1,300 

"'4,'o"50 


70.3 
43.1 
8.2 
18.6 
22.2 
48.0 
14.5 
25.0 
10.3 
23.8 
26.0 


1,904 
1,920 

'3,84'o' 

'3,744' 
212 

" " s's'o' 


84.0 
51.7 
10.0 
13.5 
27.4 
56.0 
18.5 
30.0 
20.0 
27.6 
31.0 


2,172 
2,200 

'2,'9'ob' 

3,849 
225 

'l','3'l0 


""5.0 
14.4 
10.6 
9.0 
9.4 
17.5 
7.0 
7.6 
16.0 


'3,000 

'"I'.iKO 
138 

■■"350 


43.3 
49.8 

"48!6 
10.4 
60.0 

"26:6 
32.5 
23.5 


2,118 
2,350 

'5,500 

'2,'9'44' 

""770 


7.0 

■ "eie 

8.0 

' ' '7.'6 

7.6 


398 

"i.bsb 

""43b 


Hn. M. 

Y. M. 9 cords. 

Manure 20 loads. 
S. M. 6i cords. 
Manure 600 bushels. 


la, 6.7. lb, 5.5. Ilia, 5.5. Illb, 5.5. IVa, 7.5 bush 
la, 11. Ill, duplicated 41. 






Ashes 40 bushels, 5.6. 
" 25 " 35.0. 




28.0 















Average. ^ 


8.8 




11.8 




17.6 




19.3 




23 




32.2 




31.0 




36.0 




11.3 




36.3 




8.5 






A 

10 


Prof. J. R. Farrington. 
E.P.Smith.. .... 


Maine 

Vermont 

Pennsylvania . 
Rhode Island 
Vermont 

New York.'.'.. 


Medium Soils. 
Yielding 20-30 bushels 
of Shelled Com per Acre 
with No Manure. 


Ranging from 
heavy clay loam 
to sandy and ■ 
gmvelly. 


20.3 
27.5 
28.7 
26.3 
27.5 
20.2 
20.5 
24.0 


2,210 
1,610 
1,550 


19.3 
35.0 
35.6 
35.1 
51.9 
40.5 
43.7 
18.5 


2,980 

1,950' 

" "2,'300 


29.1 
35.0 
.37.5 
49.5 
40.0 
57.2 
43.7 
30.5 


3,180 

'2.00'o' 
'2,000. 


32.9 
32.5 
35.6 
35.1 
49.1 
30.0 
39.9 
20.5 


3,080 
'2,300' 
'2,200' 


37.0 
35.0 
38. 7 
67.4 
47.1 
67.9 


2,900 

'i'lVo 


42.9 
32.5 


3,720 


39.0 
85.0 
41.9 
67.4 
47.4 
71.0 
33.4 
32.0 


3,220 
'2,'3'4"o' 
' '2,22b' 


39.8 
32.5 

51.2 
86.1 
53.7 
70.5 
41.1 
31.0 


3,300 
'2,870' 

'iib'o' 






34.8 
40.0 
32 5 


4,690 


25.5 
31.9 


'l,f)8b' 


Manure 16 loads. 
Hn. M. 15 bushels. 
Y. M. 26 loads. 

" 30 " 

" 18 cords. 
Manure 20 loads. 
Hn. M. J handful in each hill. 




27.5 
32.5 
55.6 
40.0 
23.0 
33.0 
26.0 


"'i,28b' 
'l',8b'o' 




11 
12 
U 
14 
K 
16 


Jj.W. stone & Son.... 

Haliey p. Clarke 

SethH. Rising 

C. Miller & Son 

Charles B. Gale 

Jonathan Danham 








48.1 
52.6 
60.0 
29.6 
86.6 


"2,34b' 


26.3 




Leached Ashes 10O bushels, 46. 


2,350 


52.4 


2,500 






Hg. M. 18 cords 69.6. Hg. M. 6 cords 24.3. 


46 3 
32.0 




26.0 






















38.4 












_ 


Average. 


24.4 


2.7(X)' 


84.9 




40.3 




34.5 




46.4 






46.9 




50.7 




33.9 




44.2 




27.9 






17 

18 
19 
» 


A- B.Clarke 


New York 

Vermont 

Rhode Island. 


Better Soils. 
Yielding 30^0 bushels 
of ShelletT Corn per Acre 
with No Manure. 


Stony and sandy 
loams. 


.35.2 
30.5 
.33.0 
.32.8 


41.0 
.37.2 
32.0 
41.8 


3,600' 


.34.0 
36.6 
31.0 
32.8 


'3,600 


45. 2 
35.0 
39.3 
45.3 


'4,b'5'o' 


42.3 
39.3 
34.4 
48.5 








44.1 
42.7 
39.6 
64.8 


'5,850 


51.0 
42 7 
40.0 
72.3 


'8,550 


32.0 
31.0 
27.0 
39.0 




39.5 
47.5 
45.0 




32.0 




Y.M. 10 loads. 
Hg. M. 7J cords. 
Y.M. 




^•W.Ladd 


'4,500' 


'ab'.o 




Guano 400 pounds, 41. 


I-Bradley 








n lUiam F. Segar 








Unleached Ashes 40 bushels, 44. 




















^ 


Average. 


32.8 




38.0 




33.6 




41 2 




41.1 




30.0 




47.8 




57.5 




32.2 




44.0 




32.0 






» 

u 


James K.Toby 

Cicero Blake.: 


Vermont 

Ohio 


Best Soils. 
YicWingover40 bushels 
of Shelled Com per Acre 
with No Manure. 


Gravelly and 
sandy loams. 


48.7 
47.0 
64.9 
49.2 




58.3 
58.0 
635 
60.0 




62.6 
56.0 
M.7 
54.0 




70.2 
68.4 
64.3 
37.8 




68.5 




49.9 




59.2 
63.0 
69.3 
57.3 




70.3 
61.0 
80.6 
76.0 




42.6 
53.0 
65.7 
48.3 




45.2 
65.0 
76.7 
66.8 




41.5 
62.5 




S. M. 8 cords. 
Y. M. 40 loads. 

S. M. 9 cords. 




2"P»?1 


Vermont 

New York 


65.9 




69.1 






Mward Hicks 




41.3 




Rectified Guano 892 lbs. 62. Bone Meal 208 lbs., 51 


















Average. 


52.4 




59.9 




59.3 




67.7 




63.0 




59.5 




62.2 




72.7 




52.4 




63.4 




45.1 








Total Average of Twenty-Seven Exneriments wltl 




24.6 




30.4 




33.5 




33.3 




39.1 




39.6 





42.9 




48 6 




28.9 




45.9 




24.4 

















' 





•In Experiments I. It, and HI, 1.50 pounds costing $5,624. + In I, II, and III, 160 pounds costing $3.37^. , j onn ^ 

"' Miri., *'^?*'"®'*--" "■'" ^'« noticed, for example, in Experiment B, the 150 pounds per acre of Nitrate of Soda, costing $5.62i, increased the yield of corn 1 bushel ; .300 pounds of dissolved Bone-black (charred bones) added over 22 bushels at a cost of $5.25 ; while the two together (IV) added 24.2 bushels at a <;°»'of *'";»=; '"i*'%e°'J^^^^^ 
lie annul .P' '^"•**'' «■•'•> ""e'e ^VI) increased the yield by 34 bushels, at a cost of $1.5.38 In Experiment C, 150 pounds of MuSate of Potash, costing $3 .37*, increased the yield by 51 bushels. In the average of 27 difterent experiments on as many diflerent farms, the greatest mcrease-a double crop-over no manure, is shown unuer jno. vi, wim 
W'lcation of 150 pounds Nitrate of Soda, ;«)0 pounds dissolved Bone-black, and 200 pounds of Muriate of Potash. But the greatest average profit was with No. V, where 200 pounds each of Superphosphate and Muriate of Potash mcreased the average yield of corn 18j bushels, at a cost ol $9.75. 















)UNTS OF 








ORES." 


YIELD IN BUSHELS WITH EXTRAS. 






Manure. 






" 


la, Sulphate of Ammonia, 112 lbs. 






it 


( Dried Blood, 200 " 
'1 Dis. Bone-black, 300 " 


d 




u 


1 




it 




•c 








(D 








O, 








M 
1^ 


] 








EXP 






O 
















^ 








a 








s 








!z; 








25 


Jamef 




IVa = 125. 


26 


J.H. 




la = 24.8. ni duplicated = 60.4. 


27 


W.I. 






28 


R. P. 






29 


s. w. 




Lime, 500 pounds = 63.3. 


30 


J. R. 




Ground Bone, 440 pounds = 162. 


31 


Mood; 




32 


"' 




33 


Hiran 




34 


i 

A. P. 




35 




Ill duplicated = 140. 


36 


M. Ch 


Ashes, 40 bushels = 212. 


37 


Charlj 


Y. M. = 290. 


38 


Prof. 




39 


Jamei 


R^a = 523. 


40 


t 
Henrj 




41 


J 

J. J.] 




42 


Willa 





TABLE II. 

EXPERIMENTS WITH POTATOES, TURNIPS, AND OTHER CROPS. 
YIELDS PER ACRE WITH DIFFERENT MANURES. 











No. of Fertilizer. 





1. 


n. 


m. 


IV 


XIII. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 


00 








Fertilizers per 
Acre. 


o 


CO 

Is 


g 

ll 
(5 


1 

"S a,' 


.Hi 


Nitrate of Soda, 

150 lbs. 
Muriate of Potash, 

200 lbs 


Dissolved Bone-black, 

?m lbs. 

Muriate of Potash, 
200 lbs. 


Nitr'eof Soda, 150 lbs. 
Dissolved Bone-black, 
300 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash, 
200 lbs. 


1 


i 

S 

fa 


£ 
1 


KIND AND AMOUNTS OP 
"FABM MANURES." 

S. M. — Stable Manure. 
Y. M. " Yard 
H. M. " Horse 
Hg.M." Hog 
Hn.M." Hen 


YIELD in BUSHELS WITH EXTRAS. 

la. Sulphate of Ammonia, 112 lbs. 


1 

1 

o 


NAME OF 
EXPERIMENTER. 


STATE. 


General 

Character 

op Sou,. 


Valuable Ingre- 
dients PEE 
Acre. 




i 
1 


< 

•p 

1" 


.a" 
1 


Ms 

So 




13 

•G ,; 

< 5 

•H 1 

.a^_-.- 


Nitrogen, 24 lbs. 
Phosphoric Acid, 

48 lbs. 
Potash, 100 lbs. 


o 

<6 

'§3 
H 

CD 


IS 




j Dried Blood, 200 " 
' 1 Dis. Bone-black, .300 " 


Z 


Cost per Acre. . 




$7.50 


$5.25 


$4 50 


$10.88 


$10.13 


$9.75 


$15..38 


$0.80 


Variable . . 






2.5 
26 
27 


James K.Toby 

J.H. Stiles 

W. I. Bartholomew.... 
R. P. Wolcott 


Vermont 

New Jersey 

Connecticut 

New York 


Heavy clay 

to 
sandy loam. 


POTATOE.S. 

Bush, per Acre. 


134.0 
31.2 
130.0 
120.0 
60 
133,0 
141.0 
121.0 
30.0 


127.0 
30.8 
162.0 
102.0 
76 6 
13.9 
1:^3 
117.0 
40.0 


127.0 
28.4 
200.0 
105 
100.0 
138.0 
165.0 
168 
80.0 


130.0 
69.0 
125.0 
140.0 
93.3 
160.0 
2(19.0 
214.0 
20.0 


154.0 
37.2 
210.0 
150.0 
106.6 
149.0 
206.0 
176.0 
100.0 


122.0 


115.0 
76.4 
220.0 
162.0 
150.0 
165.0 
247.6 
145.C 
100.0 


138.0 
75.6 
250.0 
185.0 
170.0 
200.0 
270.4 
167.0 
140.0 


1.32.0 
31. B 
150.0 
100.0 
93.3 


129.0 
74.8 


141.0 


S. M. 8 cords. 
Y. M. 

Y. M. 30 loads. 
S. M. 6i cords. 

S. M. 25 loads. 
S. M. 20 " 
Y. M. 


IVa = 125. 

la - 24.8. Ill dui>licated - 60.4. 


2.S 




115.0 
146.0 


90.0 
60.0 




2f) 


S. W. Crocker 

J. R. Kinerson 

Moody P. Marshal] 

Hiram A. Cutting.. ... 






:w 


Tei-mont 

New Hampshire. 

Vermont 


137.0 


Ground Bone, 440 pounds - 102. 


32 


158.6 
123.0 
60.0 


215.4 
170.0 
80.0 


"35!6' 




33 


60.0 






Average 


100.0 


103.0 


123.4 


129.6 


143.2 


106.0 


153.4 


177.3 


106.0 


132.9 


81.5 




34 


A.P.Arnold 


New Jersey 

Florida .....'.'..'. 


Sandy loam 

to 
fine sand. 


Sweet 

Potatoes. 

Bush, per Acre. 


68.0 

"nii'.s 

73.0 


91.0 

120.0 
150.0 
141.0 


77.0 
130.0 
79.0 
73.0 


110.0 
140.0 
1S9.0 
194.0 


93.0 
120.0 

92.5 
145.0 




166.0 
140.0 
92.5 

218.0 


177.0 
170 
212.0 
290.0 


60.0 




S.M. 




:« 






in duplicated = 140. 


3fi 


M. Chesebro 








53.0 
73.0 


Ashes, 40 bushels = 212. 


37 




New Jersey 


194.0 




290.0 










3S 


Prof. J. R. Farrington . 
James K. Toby 




Heavy clay and 
loose loam. 


Turnips. , 
Bush, per Acre. ( 


225.0 
516.0 


285.0 
565.0 


315.0 
615.0 


240.0 
588.0 


428.0 
593.0 


203.0 
661.0 


413.0 
656.0 


518.0 
785.0 


263.0 
673.0 


300.0 
580.0 


'mi'.o 


S.M. 

S. M. 8 cords. 




39 


Vermont 




40 




Vermont 


Clay loam. 


Sugar Beets, j 
Bush, per Acre.) 






1,174.0 


851.3 


1,116.0 


988.3 


1,090.6 


1,118.6 


960.6 




803.3 
















41 






Red clay. 


Cotton. i 
Pounds per Acre.) 


104.5 38.5 


242.0 


66.0 


599.5 




457.0 


693.0 


44.0 






















■I' 


WillardR. Hall 




Sandy. 


Cow Peas. < 
Bush, per Acre. ( 




5.0 


6.0 


6.0 




8.0 


10.0 


4.0 














... 




' 





•That is, the soils ranged from heavy clay, No. 25, to sandy loam. No. 33, etc. 



87 

Some of the reports give still more cogent illustrations of the great 
usefulness of the potash salts. In Mr. Stiles's experiments with 
both corn and potatoes, Nos. 4 and 26, every plot with potash 
salts brought a large yield; every one which had no potash failed. 
Besides the regular set, Mr. Stiles had an extra bag of muriate of 
potash, which was put on adjoining plots, and brought the same 
results as in the regular set. < 

It is noticeable that the potash salts increased the yield of pota- 
toes in nearly every experiment, while they frequently failed to 
show much effect on corn. 

Nitrate of Soda — Plaster. 

Nitrate of soda seldom produced much effect. Indeed, it was 
but little more efficient than the plaster. The latter, by the way, 
though generally of little avail, sometimes showed very marked 
results, as in the experiments of Mr. Clarke, No. 12, and Mr. 
Crocker, No. 29. 

Cases in which All the Fertilizers Failed. 

Cases in which none of the manures were particularly useful 
ai-e common. Mr. Smith's experiment No 10, is such a one. Mr. 
Lewis, No. 8, likewise got scarcely any benefit from either the 
artificial fertilizers or the stable manure. Mr. Haight, No. 1 , had an 
e(]ually uniform and much worse success. Indeed, these experiments 
illustrate very forcibly a fact that few farmers appreciate, namely, 
that there are a great many soils which will not pay for the use of 
artificial fertilizers, at least not until they are better tilled, irri- 
gated, drained, or otherwise improved. 

We have found these tables rather unsatisfactory, especially 
because they do not bring out clearly the 

Specific Effects op the Different Fertilizing Materials on 
Different Soils. 

To make this plainer, Mr. Jordan has prepared what he calls a 
"Table of Differences," Table III, herewith, which shows very 
clearly the effect of each material — nitrate of soda, superphosphate, 
and muriate of potash — both when used alone and when mixed with 
the others; and also presents in a very clear light the uniformity or 
irregularity of the action of each one on the different plots of each 
experiment. For instance, the effect of nitrate of soda alone is 



^8 

found Ijy subtracting the averaj^o yield with no nuinuie fium that 
of the nitrate of soda plot. To find its effect witli superphosphate, 
the yield of the phosplioric acid plot is sulitracted from that which 
had the mixture of the two. The increase with tlie complete fer- 
tilizer over that with the superphosphate and potash salt, gives the 
effect of the nitrate of soda again, and so on. Of course it is 
understood that these differences in a given case do not express 
exactly the effect of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or potash, nor 
even that of the fertilizer containing them. The indirect action of 
the fertilizer counts for something, and the irregularities in the 
different plots often a good deal more. From this table we may 
note that: 

1 . The effects of the different materials on the poorer soils were 
generally very uniform. On the better soils they are more varied. 
This fact supports the view that the experiments are generally 
relialjle as tests of the wants of worn-out soils, those which have 
only their natural strength to rely upon, but are not to be de- 
pended upon as tests of the needs of rich soils, those that have an 
accumulated store of plant-food to draw from. 

2. While the effects vary in individual cases, the agreement in 
the general averages of all the experiments is very striking. Thus 
in the average of the twenty-seven corn experiments, the increase 
caused by the nitrate of soda on the different plots ranges from 5.6 
to 5.8 bushels ; that with the superphosphate from 8.7 to 9.6 
bushels, and so on. 

3. Nitrate of Soda did best, where it was used with the other 
materials, on potatoes. Alone on potatoes, and alone or with other 
materials on corn, it was not often profitable. 

4. Superphosphate was'profitable for corn, usually, and for pota- 
toes in nearly every case. It was most useful on the poorer and 
medium soils. With corn, on the rich soils it had less, and some- 
times almost no effect. 

5. Plaster. — The efl'ect was variable, but generally amounted to 
httle ; though considering its small cost, at the rate of 200 lbs. per acre, 
on the average, it considerably more than paid for itself. The 
increase with corn was from none to 29, average 4^ bushels; with 
potatoes none to 33, average 12| bushels. It is clear that some, 
though in most cases probably not much, of the effect of the super- 
phosphate was due to its sulphuric acid and hme. 

6. Muriate of Potash proved profitable with corn, frequently, 
and with potatoes in every case but two. Tlie benefit, if any, was 



TABLE III. 



EFFECTS OF INDIVIDUAL INGREDIENTS OF FERTILIZERS, NITROGEN PHOSPHORIC ACTT) fWTTTT qttt 

PHURIC ACID AND LIME), AND POTASH. ^vviin »ui.- 



EXPERIMENTS WITH CORN. 







1 
0. 

M 
W 


a 

S 

c 
D 

> 

< 


INCREASB WITH NiTBOGEN. 


Increase with Puosphorio Acid.* 


Increase with Plaster (= Sul- 
phuric Acid and Lime), 
over 
No Manure. 


Increase with Potash. 


GROUPING OF SOILS. 
(By yields without manure. Heav- 
iest soil of each group above, and 
lightest below.) 

• 


Q M S 


+ 1 
•° ■§ 

il t 

ti°l 

2" K 


S 

+ 

1 1 
1 £ 


Nitrogen, 24 lbs., + Phos- 
phoric Acid and Potaeh, 
over 

Phosphoric Acid and 
Potash. 


s 

£.1 


< 

"0 ^ ^ 
1=1 
S ll 


+ 

i 

■as? a 
l«M 

£ K 


+ 

i 

< ai 
■r . 
oja a 

■3.1 g-S 
|£°-s 
p< a, 


Phosphoric Acid, 48 lbs., -|- 
Nitrogen, + Potash, 

Nitrogen -f Potash. 


S 
i ■ 

it 
1* 


s ^ 
£ ll 


+ 

is f 

-■o S S 


Potash, 100 lbs., -f Phos- 
phoric Acid, 
over 
Phosphoric -\cid alone. 


Potash, 100 lbs,, + Nitro- 
gen + Phosplioric Acid, 
over 

Nitrogen -I- Pliosphoric 
Acid. 


a 

.£ 

ii 




r 
a 

ff 
=0 

n 


C 
B 

2 
3 

4 
5 
(i 
7 
8 
9 


9.2 

17.5 
7.0 
6.5 
9.5 
5.5 

17.5 
8.7 
7.5 
5.0 


10.1 
1.0 
10.5 

-3.3 
8.5 
1.0 
2.4 
0.3 

-2.0 
6.0 


—5.3 
2.0 
6.2 
2.6 
5.0 

7.7 
12.5 
5.0 
8.0 
7.5 


6.6 
2.0 
5.8 

■■"sis' 


13.7 
8.5 
-5.1 
5.2 
8.0 
4.0 
5.0 
3.7 
4.0 
5.0 


6.3 
3.4 
4.3 
1.0 
7.0 
3.2 
6.6 
2.9 
3.3 
6.8 


5.1 
22.2 

3.3 
16.5 

1.5 

5.2 
16.0 

S.8 
13.S 

3.5 


—10.3 
32.2 

-1.0 
22.4 

-2.0 
16.9 
26.3 
13.6 
23.2 
6.0 


8.0 
24 

9.4 
16.4 

6.0 

6.7 
12.5 

8.8 
16.2 

6.5 


15.1 
30.5 
—1.5 


6.0 
25.0 

2.6 
18.5 

1.3 

9.5 
18.2 
10 2 
17.5 

4.8 

11.3 

7.9 
3,3 
6,1 

29,2 
1.5 

34,7 
6,9 

10.2 




51.0 

1,4 

2,2 

-0,7 

325 
2,3 
8.5 
—1.2 
0.1 

14.0 


47.4 

2.4 

-2.5 

■"■24!6' 


53.8 

3.2 

8,2 

-0,8 

37.0 
3.8 
5.0 
—1.2 
3.1 

17.6 


72,8 

9.7 

—0.3 

—1.8 

40.0 

2.1 

—2.5 

-2.5 

1.3 

16.0 


56,3 






POOREST SOILS. 


7.4 

4.1 

—0.5 

3.9 


1,3 
0,1 


Yielding under 20 bushels 














-1.7 










05 






10.0 
1.8 




13.8 












Average. 

A 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
IB 


9.4 

20.9 
29.7 
28.7 
26.3 
27.5 
■JO. 2 
20.5 
24.0 


3.5 

-3.6 
5.3 

7.0 
8.8 
24.4 
20.3 
23.2 
-1.5 


5.1 

17.7 


(5.6) 
10.0 


5.2 

2.8 
-2.5 

9.3 
18.7 

6.3 
—0.5 

7.7 
-1.0 


4.5 

6.7 
1.3 
5.8 
13.1 
10.3 
9.3 
7.8 
-0.2 


9.5 

6.2 
7.5 
5.3 
23.2 
12.5 
37.0 
32.2 
6.6 

16.2 

0.4 

6.1 

—1.0 


12.7 

17.7 

3.'i 

32.3 
—4.8 
27.4 
2.6 
13.5 


11.5 

7.4 
2.5 
6.3 
32 3 
—1.7 
41.0 
-6.5 
11.5 


(14.7) 
-2.1 


11.1 

10.0 
5.0 
2.8 
8.8 
22.4 
10,0 
19,4 
—3.5 


17.7 

23.6 
—25.0 


13.0 

10,9 

4.'4 

17.9 
9,9 
13.8 
—10.3 
13,5 


13,6 

2,8 
-2.5 
13.5 
18.7 
6.6 
2.6 
—5.2 
-1.0 


11.5 

12.4 




-2.4 
3.8 
29.3 
12.5 
2.8 
12,5 
2,0 

8.6 

-1,6 
0,5 

—6,0 
6.2 






1.2 
16.9 

7.1 
10.5 

2.6 

1.5 


'"'s's' 

7.0 
—13.0 




8.3 




"'isio' 

33.5 
15.1 






MEDIUM SOILS. 

Yielding 20-30 bushels of . 
shelled Com per acre with 


-0,5 
—2,5 

—17.7 


9.9 

6.0 

—3.4 

3,0 










Average. 

17 
18 
19 
20 

Average. 

21 
22 
2.3 
24 


24.9 

33.6 

.30.5 
33.0 
32.8 

32.5 

46.1 
49.7 
64.9 

45.7 


10.5 

7.4 

6.9 

—1.0 

9.0 


6.6 

8.3 
2.7 
3.3 
17.7 


(3.0) 


5.4 
10.0 

6!4' 

7.6 


6.8 

8.0 
3.2 
1.2 
11.4 


11.5 

1.2 
2.1 
2.4 
6.7 


11.7 

—1.1 
7.7 
0.3 
19.5 


(14.9) 

"'io^o' 


12.6 

-.3 
6.3 
29 

8.7 


9.4 

11.6 
4.6 
6.3 

12.5 


0.1 


7.5 

3.0 
6.1 
8.6 
32.0 


4.4 

9.3 
3.4 
5.6 
26.8 


6.4 
7.4 


BETTBK SOILS. „K 

Yielding .30^0 bushels of J §5 
shelled Corn per acre with 5^"< 


■■-2.6' 


4.7 
6.2 
22.7 


DO Manure. g 


5 6 

13.2 

82 

—1.8 

14.7 


8.0 

6.0 
7.3 
1.2 
0.3 


-20.3 
""i.S 


4.5 

11.0 
1.0 
11.3 
18.7 


6.0 

1.6 
6.4 
4.0 
10.1 


1 4 

17.5 
6.2 

—0.2 
8.7 

8.1 


3.1 

10.0 

4.7 

2 4 

—6.3 


6.6 

-11.0 
4.6 

4.8 
19.6 


(10.0) 
20.6 


4.2 

8.4 
fi.l 
6.2 
6.0 


—0.2 

—2.5 
3.3 
0.8 
2.6 

1.1 


8.7 

,25.1 

8.6 

-0.6 

—7.5 


-2.0 
-8.4 

■ 's^e 


12.4 

—3.4 
7.0 
4.6 
33 


11,3 

12.0 
7.0 
14.0 
21,7 


10.3 

3.7 
6.3 


Yielding over 40 bushels of J iK'g 
shelled Corn per acre with 5 2. 
no Manure. ^ ~. 


11.5 


4.4 


Average. 


51.3 


8.6 


3.7 


(-7.8) 


10.5 


5.6 


2.7 


15 3 


(16.1) 


6.7 


5.1 


-1.4 


2.9 


11,4 


6.1 


Total Averages of 26 Experiments. . . 


5.8 


6.6 




5.7 


5.7 


8.9 


8.7 


9,6 


(9.0) 


9.0 


4.3 


8.7 


9.2 


9.4 


9,5 


9.2 



EXPERIMENTS WITH POTATOES. 



Soils ranging from heavy 
clay to sandy loam. 



Total Averages of 9 Experiments. 



137.6 
31 2 
130,0 
105.0 
60 
1.33.0 
141.0 
121.0 
32.5 



—10.6 
—0.4 
32,0 



11,0 
41.0 
8.0 
20.0 



■40.6' 



23.0 
-0.8 
30.0 
23,0 
20,0 
35,0 
22.9 
22.0 
40.0 



6.4 

2.5 
24.0 
22.6 
14,4 

7.0 
18.6 

8.7 
26.9 



700 



40 
5.0 
24.0 
47.0 
47.5 



27.0 
6.4 
48.0 
48.0 
30.0 
10.0 
73.0 
59.0 
60.0 



5,0 

38,5 

—69.0 

80.0 



63.0 

'solo' 



-65 

4,0 
11.0 
23.3 
42.2 
20.8 
45.2 
12.3 
66,9 


—1.5 
37.8 

—5.0 
35.0 
33,3 
16.0 
65.0 
.W.O 
67.5 


-5.0 


—12.0 
48.0 
20.0 
57.0 
50.0 
27.0 
82.5 

-'23.0 
20,0 


—16.0 
38.4 
40.0 
.35.0 
63.4 
51.0 
6-1.4 
-9.0 
40.0 


—8.6 
41.4 
1Rfi 




42,3 


'■■— 2!6' 


48.9 
23,0 
70.6 


■■■'2o!6 


7.7 
49.2 


12.1 


33.7 




29 9 


34.1 


32.6 








* That is, with Superphosphate whicli had also some Sulphu 
KXPLANAXIOtV.— This lable' ' ' 



; Acid and Lime. 



, ,n^ ,1,0 ..„„,.ifir pfl'cct" of ttic substauces furnishing Nitrogen, 
itv of the action of I lie different materials and (2), '^VP^^ ,"''=. „ni,v;rnilv efficient. In No. 21, the results arc 

i^^iE Mj/«i'«.r& ■ M^'if . — jiiiin luuic lt^ iiut^micu i,u piiww va;, IMC ici^uioiiLj w. .i,v,ii>..". ity 01 luc UCLIUII wi ■'"- „,,^ in Vo C the Muriate of Potaf*h. Is UnlIornil> cuiv. -...,,]„,,„ ininue 

phoric Acid, Potash, and Plaster in the different plots of each experiment. Thus, in No. B, the Superphosphate and ° ^f>' ',7^5' t\vas used. Thus the .neld with Supen.hosnhaealoue minus 
irregular. The ligures are found by subtracting the yield without each ingredient in each case from the yields 'f '^e '■a^ej m ^™^^,;^,'™„ "^,,ee the effect of Superphosphate with Potash salts, acu 
with nothing, gives the efl'ect of Superphosphate alone. That of mixture of Superphosphate and Potash salts '*-" '""^„, "" 
1. Averagingthe results for each material on the several plots gives the effect of that material in the experiment as a wuuic. 



91 

apt to be striking. I am persuaded that in the heavy clay its good 
effect must have been due, in good part at least, to its indirect 
action; e. g., in loosening the soil by precipitating the gelatinous 
clay, or otherwise improving its mechanical condition, and by 
rendering other plant food available. Contrary to the common 
doctrine, the potash salts did not prove more efficient with other 
fertilizers than when used alone. Of course the crops were larger 
when other materials were added. 

7. The complete fertilizer brought by far the largest average 
crops, excelling by a considerable the farm manures. But the 
most profitable fertilizers were the partial ones, which fitted the 
demands of the special cases. 

8. Kind of Soil. — The experiments do not give data for many 
reliable inferences as to the kind of soil most benefited by the fer- 
tilizers. It may be said that on the heavy soils of the poorer classes 
the muriate of potash seemed to have a better effect than on the 
lighter soils of the same classes, and that the superphosphate pro- 
duced a decidedly larger average increase on the two poorer than 
on the two better classes of soils. Though the superphosphate 
showed its best effects on corn, yet on soils yielding, unmanured, 
over twenty-five bushels per acre, the crop was seldom increased to 
any amount, and generally got little or no good from it. In other 
words, the superphosphate generally helped corn very decidedly on 
poor soils, but did little good on rich soils. 

9. Kind of Crop. — While corn seldom got very much help 
from the nitrate of soda, and often failed to respond to the potash 
salts, potatoes brought paying returns for these in almost every 
case. But the number of potato experiments (7) is too small to 
allow any decided generalizations. The results with corn will 
be discussed farther on. 

10. The dominant factor of the growth of the crop, of the good 
it gets from the manure, is the soil. Next to this come climate 
and season. 

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 

In short, the reports justify the following statements : 

1. Soils vary widely in their capacities for suppljring crops with 
food, and consequently in their demands for fertilizers. 

2. Some soils will give good returns for fertilizers. Others, 
without previous amendment, will not. 

3. The "complete" chemical fertilizer brought on the average 



92 

larger crops, ami wa« fully as safe as the farm manures. How tlie 
after effects of the two will compare, the future must decide. Hut 
while the complete fertilizer brought the largest average crops, 
the most profitable results in each case came from the particular 
fertilizer that fitted best. Sometimes it was the superphosphate; 
sometimes the potash salt, and sometimes a mixture of two or all 
three materials. 

4. The experiments illustrate the truth of the doctrine that the 
proper policy is; first, to make as much and as good manure as 
possible on the farm, then to piece out with superphosphates, bone, 
guano, potash salts, or other materials, such as the experiments 
and experience show to be most profitable. 

5. The only way to find what a soil wants is to study it by care- 
ful observation and experiments. 

FERTILIZERS FOR CORN. 

How to grow corn profitably is getting to be one of the impor- 
tant questions of our Eastern farming. The main factor is the 
manure. What are the best and cheapest fertilizers for corn, is a 
question that deeply interests nearly every farmer in New Eng- 
land. 

The Feeding Capacity of the Corn Plant. 

The first thing to be learned is the power which the plant has to 
gather its supplies of food from natural sources, and the specific effect 
of different materials upon its growth. Can corn gather its nitro- 
gen from soil and air, Hke clover, or does it, like wheat, require 
large quantities in fertilizers? Is it especially helped by phos- 
phoric acid, like turnips, or is potash more important to aid its 
growth ? Opinions differ widely on these points. There is urgent 
need of more light upon them. 

Mr. Harris on Corn Fertilizers. 

In his excellent little book, " Talks on Manures," Mr. Joseph 
Harris devotes ten pages to the discussion of manures for corn, 
making especial reference to the nitrogen supply. He says : 

" We know less about the manurial retiuiremcnts of Indian corn, than of 
almost any other crop we cultivate. Wo know that wheat, l)ar]ey, oats, 
and grasses require for their maximum growth a liberal supply of available 
nitrogen in the soil. And such facts and experiments as we have seem to 
indicate that the same is also true of Indian corn. It is, at any rate, rea- 
sonable to suppose that, as Indian corn belongs to the same botanical 



93 

order as wheat, barley, oats, rye, timothy and other grasses, the general 
manurial requirements would be the same. Such, I presume, is the case ; 
and yet there seem to be some facts that would incline us to place Indian 
corn with the leguminous plants, such as clover, peas, and beans, rather 
than with the cereals, wheat, barley, oats, etc. * * * 

"As we have shown, clover can get more nitrogen out of the soil than 
wheat, barley, and oats. And the same is true of beans and peas, though 
probably not to so great an extent." Mr. Harris cites some of the facts of 
common experience relative to the growth of corn and wheat, and continues : 
"Now, it would seem that Indian corn can get more nitrogen out of a 
soil than wheat, barley, or oats, and to this extent, at least, we may consider 
Indian corn as a renovating crop. * * * When we feed out the corn and 
stalks on the farm, we have more food and more manure than if we raised 
and fed out a crop of oats, barley, or wheat. If this idea is correct, then 
Indian corn, when consumed on the farm, shoiild not be classed with what 
the English farmers term ' white crops,' but rather with the 'green crops.' 
In other words, Indian corn is what old writers used to call a ' fallow 
crop, ' or what we call a renovating crop. 

"If this is so, then the growth and consumption of Indian corn on the 

farm, as is the case with clover, should leave the farm richer for wheat, 

rather than poorer. I do not mean richer absolutely, but richer so far as 

the available supply of plant food is concerned. 

* * * * * * * * 

" If these are facts, then the remarks we have made in regard to the value 
of clover as a fertilizing crop, are applicable in some degrefe to Indian 
corn. To grow clover and sell it will in the end impoverish the soil ; to 
grow clover and feed it out will enrich the land. And the same will be 
true of Indian corn. It will gather up nitrogen that the wheat crop can 
not appropriate ; and when the corn and stalks are fed out, some ninety 
per cent, of the nitrogen will be left in the manure. 

On the whole, Mr. Harris regards the problem as undecided, be- 
cause experimeutal data are lacking. 

" Indeed, we believe no satisfactory experiments have been made 
on Indian corn in any country that throw any definite light on this 
interesting and important question." 

Mr. Lawes on Fertilizers for Corn. 
Mr. Lawes of Rothhamsted, England, is inclined to class corn 
with the cereals, wheat, oats, etc., because they belong to the same 
botanical family, but at the same time urges the need of experi- 
ments to test the question. Trials on his own farm have failed 
because in the cool English climate the corn did not mature. In a 
letter to the New Jersey State Board of Agriculture,* he says : "It 
is of very great importance to know to what extent Indian corn 

* Fourth Annual Report of the N. Jersey State Board of Agriculture, 1876,39. 



94 

follows the same law, [us the cereals,] that is to say, on a soil 
which will, under a liberal supply of potash and phosphoric acid, 
yield 20, 30, or 40 bushels of corn, what increase is obtained hy a 
liljeral supply of ammonia and nitrates." 

Since writing th(! above, 1 have been greatly interested in a let- 
ter on "The position of Maize as an Agricultural crop," written 
by Mr. Lawes to Mr. Harris, and published in the American Culti- 
vator, Dec. 28, 187S. Corning from the foremost field experimenter 
in the world, and bearing on so important a subject, it is worthy 
republication in full: 

" There seems to be some doubt in ihc mimls of yoiii-sclf and lanncis 
generally in the United States with regard to this important crop, maize 
or Indian corn. You are divided in yonr opinion whether it shuuhl rank 
as a cereal or a legimiinous crop. I do not, of course, mean that you 
(piestion its botani(;al position, but you say, ' In its cajtacity to obtain ma- 
nure from tlie soil, it resembles a leguminous ratlier than a cereal crop.' 
Your argument is this: Take a field in equal condition, divide it into two 
portions, sow maize on one-half and wheal on the other, and you will ob- 
tain say thirty bushels per acre of maize and fifteen of wheat. 

"The average yield of maize in the States for ten years is twenty-six 
bushels per acre ; of wheat, twelve bushels. This shows rather more 
than twice. as much maize as wheat, and as maize geuerallj' precedes 
wheat in ordinary farming, and consequently has some advantage in 
regard to the condition of the land, we may accept your figures, and say 
tliat with equal condition of soil, the produce of maize will be double 
that of wheat. How is this to be explained? 

"As an unfavorable climate has prevented me from experimenting in 
maize, the remarks I am about to make must be accepted as suggestions 
to elicit thought in others, rather than as opinions of my own, upon 
which too raucii confidence should not be placed. Maize belongs to the 
great family of graminacete, which supplj' the food of almost the whole 
of the human race. Botany, in advance of chcmistrj^ settled tlie natural 
order; later on, chemistry, by showing that all the plants in their natural 
order resembled each other in their chemical composition, confirmed the 
arrangement. The large amount of silica which is found in the ash of 
the maize proves that it has no connection with a leguminous phiut: it 
may also be distinguished from the latter plant by the low amount of ni- 
trogen and large amount of starch which its seed contains. 

" This, however, does not explain why it can appropriate so much more 
food from the soil and atmosphere than tlie Avheat plant. Assuming tliat 
maize and wheat live upon the same soil food, which I am quite disposed 
to think is the case, we must not lo.se sight of the cajnicity of one plant, 
as compared with another, of collecting and assimilating food. Even in 
two different varieties of the same species of plant this propert}' is shown 
in a very distinct manner. 



95 

"Every year we grow for experiments above twenty varieties of wheat. 
They are all sown the same day, side by side, and manured exactly alike. 
One sort of wheat, called Rivitts, generally exceeds all the others in its 
produce ; it is a very coarse wheat, disliked by millers and bakers, and 
commands a very low price. This year (1878) it jaelded sixty-six bushels 
per acre; while an old-fashioned variety, called Red Lammas, of high 
quality and well adapted to the soil and climate, yielded forty-six bushels, 
or twenty bushels less. 

"It may possibly be supposed that, although Rivitts wheat produced 
nearly one- third more produce than the other wheat, it might not have 
removed more manure ingredients from the soil in its large crop than the 
other did in its smaller crop. So far from this being the case, although 
we have not made special analyses to prove the fact, it may, I think, be 
taken for granted that the coarse, inferior wheat removed from the soil, 
in the same weight of produce, much more manure ingredients than the 
wheat of high quality. Many years ago we investigated the composition 
of wheat grains and of their various products, as separated in the mill by 
grinding. We found that the value of the product increased in propor- 
tion to the absence of soil-ingredients. The finest flour contained com- 
paratively minute quantities of nitrogen or mineral matter, while the bran 
contained the largest amount of these substances. The objection toade 
against Rivitts wheat is that it contains so little fine flour. We may 
therefore conclude that it contains too much husk and ofl'al, and also much 
of the food of the soil. 

"It is possible that maize may, from its vigorous habits of growth, pos- 
sess a greater capacity for taking up food from the soil than the wheat, 
but maize has other distinctive properties which require to be noticed. 
Compared with wheat, the active life of maize extends far longer into 
summer and autumn. In the south of France, maize sown in the begin- 
ning of May is ripe at the end of October ; in the same locality wheat is 
ripe in July. The most active growth of maize takes place after the 
wheat has ceased to collect its food. During the summer and autumn 
nitric acid is largely formed in the soil, and is taken up by both wheat 
and maize ; but the early ripening of the wheat stops further collection 
by that plant, while maize continues to collect until late in the autumn. 
The formation of nitric acid goes on in the soil after the wheat is removed, 
but much of this is washed out of the soil by the winter rains. We see, 
therefore, that maize, by its habits of growth, has access to more nitrogen, 
in the form of nitric acid, than wheat. 

"And we have, also, in this fact an explanation of the action of min- 
eral manures. Superphosphate is said, by you, to be a better manure for 
maize than for wheat; both require phosphates and nitrogen, but the 
maize gets more nitrogen, and, consequently, can take up more phosphate. 
In all soils exhausted by corn crops, you may predict with certainty that 
ammonia or nitric acid applied as manure will increase a wheat crop, 
there being a large balance of mineral food which cannot be taken up by 
the wheat in the absence of nitrogen. 

' ' One other point may be noticed. Maize contains a smaller amount of 
nitrogen than wheat; I have seen analyses which only showed one-half as 

12 



96 

much; i>r<)l)al)ly ono-fourtli less wouhl be ncunr the :iv<,'ra;;L'. Takiu.L^ all 
these matters into consideration, if wheat and maize were grown continu- 
ously for experiment, I should expect that maize, if manured with manure 
such as wood ashes and superphosphate, would give a larger produce than 
wheal. But to produce full crops, both would require, in addition, large 
quantities of nitrogen to be supplied as ammonia or nitric acid." 

In brief, Mr. Lawes would expect that corn, during its longer 
period of growth, would, with the aid of mineral fertilizers, pro- 
duce a larger yield, and, of course, gather more nitrogen than a 
wheat crop; but he is at the same time inclined to^lass it with the 
cereals. 

Formulas for Corn Fertilizers. 

In a letter to the treasurer of the Massachusetts Society for Pro- 
moting Agriculture,* Mr. Lawes says: "The best possible manure 
for all graminaceous crops — wheat, barley, maize, oats, sugar cane, 
rice, pasture-grass — is a mixture of superphosphate of lime and 
nitrate of soda. . . . Potash is generally found in sufficient quan- 
tities in soils, and the artificial supply is not required." 

The Ville Formula for Corn. 
Ville urges what he calls "complete" fertilizers, containing 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and sulphate of lime, and regu- 
lates the proportions by the assumed power of the plant to get its food 
from soil and air, and the special effects of the different fertilizing 
substances upon it. He classes corn with sugar cane, sorghum, 
turnips, rutabagas, and artichokes, for which he makes phosphoric 
acid the "dominant." I give his formula for an acre of corn, with 
amounts of the valuable ingredients and their cost, both as he 
recommends and as they may be bought in the equally good and 
cheaper materials, like nitrate of soda, giiano, bone, and potash 
salts, which, with a good many important facts in agricultural 
chemistry, his system curiously ignores. 

Materials. Ingredients. 

Nitrate of potash, 180 lbs., \ Nitrogen, 24 lbs., 
Acid phosphate of lime, 540 > Phos. acid, 81 lbs., 

lbs., - - . ) Potash, 79 lbs.. 

Sulphate of lime, 360 lbs., .... 

$27.09 $19.2.5 

* Bulletin of the Bussey Institution, I, 181. From other writings of Mr. 
Lawes, I am iaclined to think he would not insist upon the general application 
of tlie above statement concerning potash to soils in this country. For results 
of the use of potassic fertilizers in England, see statements J)y Dr. Voelcker 
in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1878, U, page 829. 



Cost in 
formula. 


In cheap- 
eft form. 


$9.20 


$4.80 


9.45 


9.45 


7.00 


3.56 


1.44 


1.44 



Cost in 
formula. 


In cheap- 
est form. 


$15.20 


$12.80 


434 


4.34 


3.46 


3.46 



97 

The Stockbbidge Formula foe Corn. 
Professor Stockbridge's formulas are calculated to furnish the 
amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash which the crop is 
found by analysis, on the average, to contain. Thus he recom- 
mends for Indian corn,* "to produce fifty bushels of the grain, 
and its natural proportion of stover, to the acre, more than the 
natural yield of the soil, and in like proportions for other quanti- 
ties, use " materials as below. To the formula, as given by Prof. 
Stockbridge, I append costs of materials as recommended, and of 
the same ingredients in the cheapest forms in which they can be 
bought, basing estimates here, as elsewhere, on current market 
rates, plus $5.00 per ton for freight and handling. 

Materials. Ingredients. 

Sulphate of ammonia, 320 lbs. Nitrogen, 64 lbs. 
Superphosphate, 248 lbs. Phos. acid, 3 1 lbs. 

Muriate of potash, 154 lbs. Potash, 77 lbs. 

$23.00 $20.60 

Prof. Stockbridge differs from Yille in that he ( 1 ) ignores the 
feeding capacity of the plant and the specific effects of the differ- 
ent materials upon it, (2) considers only the composition of the 
plant, (3) accordingly gives nitrogen the dominant place, putting- 
very little phosphoric acid in the formula, but so much nitrogen as 
to make its cost over three-fifths of the whole, and (4) omits the 
plaster. 

Does Corn Demand Nitrogenous Fertilizers ? 

The most important part of the problem is whether corn, like 
wheat, needs manures rich in nitrogen and hence very costly, or 
whether, like clover, if it have the mineral fertilizers, which cost 
comparatively little, it will gather its own nitrogen from soil and air. 
Eastern farmers must buy fertilizers to raise corn. If, as Prof. 
Stockbridge has recommended, they must advance $15.00 cash 
in the spring for nitrogen for an acre of corn, run all the risks of 
soil and season, and wait until winter for the return, the future of 
corn growing is not bright. But if, on the other hand, we may 
omit the nitrogen, apply only the mineral fertilizers, reduce the 
)rield but little, have the corn gather the nitrogen itself, feed it to 
stock, enrich the manure, and help bring up the land, that capacity 
of this grand staple will go far to establish it in the place for 
which nature seems to have designed it, — next to grass, the sheet 
anchor of our Eastern farming. 

* Report of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, 1876, 35. 



98 

In the accounts of experiments a year ago,* 1 ventured the follow- 
ing remarks: 

" Wo liiivc vcT}' littk! definite knowledge about the capacily of corn for 
getting its suji])!}' of nitrogen. The experimental data necessjiry to a just 
opinion arc sadly lacking. But it is reasonably certain that the full 
amount demanded by the formula is not required by the plant grown in 
ordinary soils. The large crops continually obtained with fertilizers with 
but little nitrogen is proof of this. The indications of the experiments 
I am about to report to j'ou, so far as they go, are in the same direction. 
In one case, for instance (Mr. Sage's experiment), without manure, and 
with different .special fertilizers, as dried blood, su])erposphates, potash 
salts, plaster, etc., the yield was generally about twenty bushels of corn in 
the ear to the acre, and that so poor as to be scarcely worth saving. The 
only good crops were witli complete fertilizers. A mixture of dried blood, 
superphosphate, and potash salt, brought one hundred and twenty bushels 
of excellent corn (ears) and a fine crop of stalks. The increase over the yield 
without manure, and with different partial fertilizers, was at the rate of 
one hundred bu.shels of ears, or fifty of shelled corn, per acre. This mix- 
ture contained two-thirds as much potash, one-third as much phosphoric 
acid, and only one-seventh as much nitrogen as the formula for the increased 
yield of fifty bushels would require. The rates that brought the cost of 
the foruuda at $24.59 would furnish this mixture at $16.00. The nitrogen 
in the formula would come to $15.40. It cost in the mixture used, $5.33. 

" I do not cite this case as a proof of the principle in discussion. One 
swallow does not make a summer. Natural laws are not discovered by 
single experiments, least of all by such incomplete ones as these." 

Special Experiments on the •' Effects of Nitrogenous Fertil- 
izers ON THE Growth of Corn." 

To get more light upon the effects of nitrogen in different pro- 
portions and combinations, several special experiments were made 
with corn on the plan detailed in Table IV. The fertilizers were ap- 
plied to 1 8 plots of one-tenth acre each, three being left unmanured. 
The mineral ingredients, phosphoric acid and potash, were sup- 
plied in about the proportions contained in a crop of 50-56 
btishels, the nitrogen in ^, ^, § the amount in the same crop. To 
test the effects of the individual ingredients, and conversely the 
capacity of the soil to supply them to the crop, the nitrogen, phos- 
phoric acid, and potash were applied singly and two by two, thus 
seeking the effect of each, on the one hand by using it alone, and 
on the other by omitting it from a "complete " fertilizer. To test 
the effect of nitrogen in different combinations, nitrate of soda was 

* Report of Connecticut Board of Agrinnlturp, 1877, page 349. 



EFF 

EXPERIMENT FOR STUDYING THE CA] 



Potash and Phosphoric Acid (' 

N 



No. of Expt. 
A. 
B. 
C. 



Experi 
Prof. J. R. ] 
W. I. Barth 
Chester Sag' 



M 




ClasBification. 


1 


Kinds a 




Group I. 


f 1- 
2. 


Nitrate of 
Sulphate 


oti'7^ 


Valuable Ingredients , , 


3. 


Dried blo( 


a t-> 


one by one. 


00. 


No manul 


lo'S.'t; 


Nitrogen in different 


4. 


Superp's.j 


S-Pg. 


Combinations. 


5. 


Mur. pot.i 


31-1.3 


Group II. 


r 
6. 


j Nitrate 
1 Superpl 


'sr.s 


Valuable Ingredients, 


7. 


J Nitrate 
1 Mur. 
( Superpl 
( Mur. pi 




two by two. 


8. 






00. 


No manu: 



to O 

M a 



ila 

§2-2 



Group III. 

Nitrogen las nitrate 
of soda) in differ- 
ent proportions. 



Group IV. 

Nitrogen in mixture 
in different pro- 
portions. 



Group V. 

Nitrogen, f Ration, 
in different combi- 
nations. 



{Mixed I 
Nitrate 
( Mixed I 
1 Nitrate 
J Mixed I 
I Nitrate 

( Mixed E 
") Nitrogei 
( Mixed II 
1 Nitrogei 
j Mixed n 
j Nitrogei 



000. No mam 



( Mixed il 
( Sulphat 
( Mixed D 
\ Dried bl 
( Peru, gu 
I Muriate 
/ Stable w 
\ cured, 



1 It will be remembered that superphosph 

mineral ingredients of plant-food th; 

^ Nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, a 

^ In No. II hog manure, and No. 3 ben m 



TABLE IV.-SPECIAL CORN EXPERIMENTS. 

.xP™NT.oRST.z,™ox?forp!;?Jo?L^™S°'^^'^°''^ FERTILIZERS ON CORN. 

" 0. ?0- ™^--- -^^^^^^^ ....CXS 0. BIKKBRENT ™UZERS UPON 

„ ,„ i\^/fro5.e« »« o»e.^Azr(f, ie^o-^/uVcfs, and full amount contained in same crop ^ ^ ''^ *"'''''"■ 

wo. ofExpt. Experimenter. . -^ ' 

b' W°T R»^h^f """"^'"t?" O'ono. Maine. Soil : Clay loam, heavy, moist, underdrained,-worn.ont meadow 

O PV,;»; c Hr.T; P"'"*"'. Conn. Soil : Hill land, dark loam, compact subsoil -worn-out meaZw 

O. Chester Sage, Middletown, Conn. Soil : Heavy loam hardpan subsoiJ.Lworn ;ut meldow 



FERTILIZERS. 



Kinds and amounts per acre. \ Nitrogen per acre. 



f 1. Nitrate of soda, 150 lbs., 
2. 



-2. I 



L, , ,^, , 2. Sulphate of ammonia, 112 lbs 

IValuableTngredients,) 3. Dried blood, 225 lbs.,. 

one by one. 1 00. No manure, 

I Nitrogen in different 4. Superp's.,.3001bs.,(Phos.ac.V48il)s.y 
'""= \ 5. Mur. pot., 150 lbs., (Potash, 75 lbs.,) 

I Nitrate of soda, 150 lbs., 

/ Superphosphate, 300 lbs., 

j Nitrate of soda, 1,50 lbs., 

1 Mur. of potash, 150 lbs., 

ISuperphos.,3001bs., [Mix.min.,i 
I Mur. pot., 150 lbs., (fertilizers.. 



Combinations. 



Grocp II. 



Valuable Ingredients, 
I two by two. 



00. No manure., 22.6 



24 lbs.,. 
24 lbs., . 
24 lbs.,. 



YIELD PER ACRE. 



24 lbs., . 
24 lbs.,. 



3S 



11.3 19.3 2,980 
" " 20,3 1,750 
18.9 2,940 
2,210 
29.1 






GRonp III. 
Nitrogen (as nitrate 
of soda) in differ- 
ent proportions. 



Group rv. 
Nitrogen in mixture 
in different pro- 
portions. 



{Mixed min. fertilizers {as No. \ 
Nitrate of soda, 160 lbs., 
{Mixed mineral fertilizers, 
Nitrateof soda, 300 lbs., 

I Mixed mineral fertilizers, 
I Nitrate of soda, 450 lbs. , 



( Mixed mineral fertilizers, 
i Nitrogen mixture,' 160 lbs.,- 
i Mixed mineral fertilizers, 
1 Nitrogen mixture, 300 lbs ,■ 
J Mixed mineral fertilizers, 
} Nitrogen mixture, 450 lbs.,' 



000. No manure,. 



Group V. 
Nitrogen, ? Ration, 
in different combi- 
nations. 



24 lbs. =" J Ration," 
48 lbs. = " 5 Ration," . 
72 lbs. = " Full Ration,' 

24Ibs. =" } Ration,".. 
48 lbs. = "f Ration,".. 
72 lbs. =." Full Ration, 



( Mixed mineral fertilizers, 

I Sulphate of ammonia, 225 lbs., ' • 

( Mixed mineral fertilizers, 

i Dried blood, 450 lbs., 

( Peru. guano, "Standard, "o501bs., I .0,1^ _ , 
1 Muriate of potash, 160 lbs., »oios. — 

"f Stable manure, good quality, well -9,1,0 /?, 
t cured, 15,000 lbs.3 . | """s. I-' 



48 lbs. _ " I Ration,''.. 

48 lbs. — " j Ration,".. 

IS. — " S Ration,". . 



41.9 
21.1 

3,220 I 431 
2,730 



1,160 15.2 
670 6.3 



1,010 



1,660 
1,300 
1,920 



Average. 






46.9 
33.4 



I 44.8 
8.1 
2.7 1 84.8 



3 300 
3.210 
4,690 

4,n50 
4,090 
3, 



3,600 



2,280 



2,400 
2. 



3,280 

550 2,490 

55.3 2,390 

4,590 i 49.8 2,350 



11.0 
16.6 
16.8 

15.8 
13.4 
12.4 

7.2 

12.2 
13.2 
11.4 
15.2 



710 19.8 
491 I 13.8 
404! 13.7 



1,698 

566 
1,784 
1,904 



16.2 



1,617 
1,304 
1,451 
1,358 
1,806 
1,963 

1,709 

2,268 

2,016 

1,559 



2,172 
2 610 
2,058 

2,089 

2,205 

2,164 

632 

2.269 
1,629 
2,323 
2.118 



58.5 2,557 
56.9 I 2,703 
3,009 



3,023 

2,998 
2,908 
10.1 

68.7 I 8,063 
56.3 2,573 

60.8 2,878 
42.6 J 3,019 



^11 be remembered that superphosphates (in this case from bone-black) contain phosphoric acid, 
^ ' ingredients of plant-food that are commonly deficient in soils, 
itrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, and dried blood, in equal parts, and containing sixteen jwrcent. 
"• No. 11 hog manure, and No. 3 hen manure, was used instead of stable manure. 



silliliurioo'di "Id lime. This mixture will, therefore, furnish all the 

ogen. • 



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102 

used on plot 1, sulphate of ammonia on plot 2, and dried blood on 
plot 3; thus using nitrogen as nitric acid, ammonia, and organic 
nitrogen. No. 4 had phosphoric acid in dissolved bone-black, and 
No, 5 potash in German muriate. Nos. 1-5 constituted "Group I." 
The same three materials in three mixtures of two each, Nos. 6, 7, 
and 8, constituted "Group II." The mixture of supeiphosphate 
and potash salt " Mixed Minerals," No. 8 contained some 50 lbs. 
of phosphoric acid and 75 lbs. of potash, about the amounts in a 
50-56 bushel crop, and constituted the basis for all the mixtures 
containing nitrogen. To test the effect of nitrogen in different 
proportions, three mixtures, Nos. 9, 10, and 11, were made, con- 
taining in addition to the " mixed minerals," nitrate of soda in 
successive proportions of 150 lbs., 300 lbs., and 450 lbs., which 
gave nitrogen 24 lbs., 48 lbs., and 72 lbs. per acre, or one-third, 
two-thirds, and full "ration" for the crop. These constituted 
" Group III." The same tests were then repeated in a duplicate 
series, " Group IV," Nos. 12, 13, and 14, in which the nitrogen was 
supplied in the same proportions but in mixture of nitrate of soda, 
sulphate of ammonia, and dried blood. The comparative effect of 
nitrogen in different combinations was tested further by Group V, 
furnishing nitrogen in the "two-thirds" ration, 48 lbs. per acre, 
No. 15 with sulphate of ammonia, No. 16 with nitrate of soda, and 
No. 1 7 in Peruvian guano, which supplied nitrogen and phosphoric 
acid, the deficient potash being made up with muriate of potash. 
Finally, the last plot was to be treated with farm manure. 

It will be noted that the fertilizers in this experiment correspond 
very nearly with those in the regular experiments, " Set A," so far 
as the latter go. 

Two Sets were placed by the University of Vermont and State 
Agricultural College in the hands of prominent farmers of that 
State; one was taken by the Maine State College at Orono, and 
applied by Prof. Farrington; one by Mr. W. I. Bartholomew of 
Putnam, Conn., and one by Mr. Sage of Middletown, Conn. 

The experiments in Vermont were both vitiated by accidents; 
the other three were conducted with the utmost pains and thorough- 
ness, as I can attest by personal observation of each on the ground. 
The fertilizers were put up with great care by the Mapes Formula 
& Peruvian Guano Company of New York, who supplied them at 
considerably less than wholesale cost. 

The results are given in the tables IV and V. 



103 

Summary of Effects of Nitrogenous Fertilizers upon Corn. 

As regards the effects of nitrogen in different combinations, in 
these special experiments, the Peruvian guano brought the largest 
increase; next came the mixture of nitrate of soda, sulphate of 
ammonia, and dried blood; then in order, nitrate of soda, sulphate 
of ainmonia, and last and poorest of all, the dried blood. The 
Peruvian guano appears at a somewhat unfair advantage, because 
it had more phosphoric acid than the other mixtures, though this 
is partly counterbalanced by the fact that the guano furnishes the 
valuable ingredients more cheaply than the other articles. Of 
course a great many trials would be needed to settle what the 
different compounds may do for corn, and under what circum- 
stances each will have the best effect. 

Estimating a bushel of corn with its stover to be worth 80 * 
cents, and to contain with the roots ItV lbs. of nitrogen, the effects 
of the nitrogenous fertilizers in all the corn experiments, general 
and special, may be summarized as follows: 



In niunber 
of trials. 

39 


With Nitrogen 
Amount. Contained in 
crop of 

34 lbs. 18 bushels 


Tlie average increase 
of corn was 

5.9 bushels 


The increase of nitro- 
gen in the crop was 

7.9 lbs. 


15 


48 lbs. 


36 bushels 


7.6 bushels 


9.1 lbs. 


9 


73 lbs. 


54 bushels 


9.3 bushels 


13.4 lbs. 



The crop was but little helped by nitrogen in the fertilizers, and 
evidently gathered a good deal from natural sources. This appears 
more clearly if we look at it another way, remembering that the 
•' mixed minerals" furnished the amounts of phosphoric acid and 
potash in a crop of 50-56 bushels, which would also contain about 
72 lbs. nitogen. 

With The crop averaged and contained 

Mixed minerals alone, 43.9 bushels 57.3 lbs. nitrogen. 

Mixed minerals + 34 lbs. nitrogen, 48.8 bushels 65.0 lbs. nitrogen. 

Mixed minerals -I- 48 lbs. nitrogen, 50.5 bushels 67.3 lbs. nitrogen. 

Mixed minerals + 73 lbs. nitrogen, 53.3 bushels 69.9 lbs. nitrogen. 

Or from the pecuniary standpoint: 

In trials with nitrogen, The nitrogen paid Failed to pay The average 

Total number. Amounts. for itself in trials. for itself in trials. loss was. 

29 24 lbs. 8 21 $0.90 

15 48 lbs. 1 14 $4.45 

9 73 lbs. 9 S8.51 

The nitrogen increased the crop enough to cover the cost in 9 

* Probably 75 cents would be nearer the actual average. This would make the 
case against nitrogenous fertilizers still worse. 



104 



trials out of 53. The loss was larger or smaller in proportion as 
more or less nitrogen was used. 

General Results of the Experiments with Corn. 

Tables I and III give results of 27 experiments with corn last 
season with nitrate of soda, superphosphate, and potash salts, 
alone and in combinations, and on soils good, bad, and indifferent, 
but mostly very poor. The average results are given below. 
Those of the nine trials with potatoes in Table JI are appended 
for comparison. The proportions per acre varied in some cases, 
as may be seen from the details in the full report, but not enough to 
materially affect the general result. 

FERTILIZERS AND PRODUCE PER ACRE. 



o 


Fertilizeks Used. 


Valuable Ingrkdibnts. 


Ave'gb Prodocb. 


o 
6 


Kind. 


Lbs. 


Cost. 

• 


Kind. 


Lbs. 


Cost. 

* 


Sh'd 

Com. 

ba. 


Pota- 
toes. 
ba. 





No Manure, 

Nitrate of Soda 

Dissolved Bone-Black,. 

Muriateof Potash, . ... 

1 Nitrate of Soda, 

1 Dissolved BoueBlack,. 

(Nitrate of Soda 

( Muriate of Potash 

J Dissolved Bone-Black,. 

1 Muriate of Potash 

(Muriate of Soda 

< Dissolved Bone-Black,. 
( Muriate of Potash,. . . . 

Plaster 


m" 

300 
20U 
1501 
300 J 
150) 

200 (■ 

3001 

200)' 

1.50 

300 V 

200) 

200 

9 






32' 

48 

100 
24 
48 
^ 

100 
48 

100 
24 
48 

100 


$7.50 
5.2.5 
4.50 
5.63 
5.25 
5M 
4.50 
5.25 
4.50 
5.63 
5.25 
4.50 


at.4 
30.4 
33.5 
33.3 

} 39.1 
1 39.6 
1 42.9 

48.6 

S»".9 
45.9 
24.6 


81 5 


T 


$7.50 
5.25 
4.50 

10.88 
10.13 
9.75 

15.38 
.80 


Nitrogen, 


103.0 


II. 
TIT 


Phosphoric Acid,. 
Potash 


123.4 
129 6 


IV. 
XIII. 

v. 






1 Phosphoric Acid, . 
( Nitrogen, 




(Potash 

J Phosphoric Acid,. 
1 Potash, 


153.4 


VI. 


Nitrogen, 

Phosphoric Acid, . 
Potash, 


177.3 


VII. 




106 




Farm Manure, 




132 9 




No Manure, 


100 











The variations with the same fertilizer were of course very wide. 
On the whole, the complete fertilizer, No. VI, brought the largest 
average yield, 48.6 bushels per acre, excelling even the farm 
manures, which, varying, of course, in amount and composition, 
brought, on the average 46 bushels. Next came the mixture of 
superphosphate and potash salts, with 43 bushels. Taking into 
account the cost, $9.75,* this was the most profitable of all. Tlie 
complete fertilizer brought, on the average, 5.7 bushels more per 
acre, but this was hardly enough to cover the extra cost of the 
nitrate of soda, $5.63.* The complete fertilizer seemed to be 

* These estimates are on basis of market prices plus ^S.oo per ton for freij:ht 
and application. 



105 

fully as reliable as the farm manures, the mixture of superphos- 
phate and potash salt but little less so. The mixture of nitrate of 
soda and superphosphate failed much oftener, and averaged less in 
product, only 39 bushels. The superphosphate, by itself, frequently 
brought fair crops. The muriate of potash sometimes brought a 
very marked increase, but oftener failed. Nitrate of soda alone 
seldom had much effect. 

The Special effects of Phosphoric Acid, Potash, and Nitrogen 

ON Corn 

Are plainly shown in Table III. Taking into account the 27 ex- 
periments of 1878, and Nos. Bl and B2 of 1877, in all 29 
corn experiments, and averaging in each trial, the effects of the 
same material on the different plots, per Table III, it appears that: 

1. Effect of Phosphoric Acid^ i. e., of Superphosphate. — In 8 
experiments, Nos. B, 3, 6, 7, 8, 14, Bl, and B2, phosphoric acid 
was decidedly the regulating ingredient, the crop responding uni- 
formly to it, and paying comparatively little attention to the others. 
In 13 experiments, Nos. A, C, 5, 11, 12, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 
and 24, the phosphoric acid, though not holding relatively so im- 
portant a place, was more or less useful. In 6 experiments, Nos. 
2, 4, 10, 13, 17, and 19, the phosphoric acid produced Kttle or 
no effect, the average increase of the several plots of each experi- 
ment being less than 4 bushels per acre. 

2. Effect of Potash, i. e., of Muriate of Potash. — In 4 experi- 
ments, Nos. C, 4, 15, and 20, potash was decidedly the regulating 
ingredient, the crops responding imiformly to it, and paying com. 
paratively little attention to the others. In 14 experiments, Nos. 
A, B, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, and 24, potash, though 
not holding so important a place, was more or less useful. In 10 
experiments, Nos. 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 15, 16, Al, and A2, potash 
produce little or no effect, the average increase of the several plots 
of each experiment being less than 4 bushels per acre. 

3. Eff^ect of Nitrogen, i. e., of Nitrate of Soda. — In no experi- 
ment was nitrogen the regulating ingredient. In 1 6 experiments, 
Nos. A, B, 2, 4, 6, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 20, 22, 23, and 24, ni- 
trogen, though not holding a very important place, was more or 
less useful. In 10 experiments, Nos. 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 16, 18, 19, and 
21, nitrogen produced little or no effect, the average increase of 
the several plots of each experiment being less than 4 bushels per 
acre. 

13 



106 

The general inference from these data would seem to me to be 
that — 

1. The most important factors of the growth of the crop and 
the effect of the fertilizers were, first, the soil ; next the season. 

2. These apart, and taking the soils as they came, the most effi- 
cient of the fertilizing materials was phosphoric acid, next potash, 
and last of all, nitrogen. 

3. The indirect action of the fertilizers must count for a consid- 
erable. I do not see how it is easy to explain the good effect of 
the muriate of potash on heavy clays that doubtless have a good 

■ deal of potash, simply on the ground of its supplying potash to the 
plant. It doubtless does much good in other ways, in improving 
the texture of the soil, e. g. by coagulating the clay and in setting 
other plant-food free. The sulphate of lime in the superphosphate 
is serviceable for plant-food, and doubtless both it and the nitrate 
of soda have an indirect action in various ways also. 

4. As regards the nitrogen question, these experiments imply 
that nitrogenous fertilizers help the crop but little, and that some 
how or other, corn can, in most cases, get a fair supply of nitrogen 
for itself, provided the minei'al food is supplied in the fertihzer. 

With mineral fertilizers alone the crop gathered, by the above 
estimates, on the average 57 pounds of nitrogen per acre. If the 
corn were fed out on the farm, most of the nitrogen (according to 
Mr. Lawes' estimate, nine-tenths) would go into the manure. Al- 
lowing one-fourth to be lost, and three-fourths to be saved and 
used in the manure, the amount thus returned to the soil would, at 
ordinary market rates, cost as much as the fertilizer that brought 
the crop. 

Effects of Different Fertilizers on Quality of Corn. 
The effects of the different fertilizers on the proportion of good 
to poor corn and of corn to stalks, are worth noting, before we 
close.* A number of experimenters reported the amounts of 
"good" and "poor "com; only eight, however, had made thor- 
oughly accurate weighings. The percentage of "good" corn, 
i. e., the number of pounds in 100 lbs. total corn, were: 

*It is of course mulorstood that these li;;uies arc not al)soliilely iiccursitc. 
See " Details of the Experiments," in full report. 



107 



No. op potr^^DS op "good corn" in 100 pounds op total corx, with the different 

IcUTILIZEKP. 



0) 

■ ■og 


to 
o 


1 


o 

o 

u 


1 


SI 

O o^ 


H 
II 


■il 




a 


6 


4 


75 


50 


50 


90 


66 




95 


90 




85 


9 


75 


78 


86 


94 


81 


93 


90 


92 


88 


88 


11 


48 


50 


60 


56 


59 




70 


70 


40 


82 


21 


69 


85 


84 


80 


82 


75 


86 


71 


63 


56 


22 


85 


83 


91 


93 


92 




94 


97 


92 


93 


24 


52 


81 


76 


63 


75 




78 


84 


84 


84 


A 


80 


54 


90 


87 


85 


ro 


88 


90 






C 


34 


54 


42 


80 


37 


85 


85 


88 






Average, 


65 


67 


72 


^"o 


72 


86 


86 


85 


73 


81 



The figures accord with common experience that the largest crop 
has the largest percentage of good corn. The phosphoric acid and 
potash, which were most efficient in increasing the crop, had a cor- 
respondingly good effect on the quality. 

Ratio of Stalks to Shelled Corn. * 
The weighings of corn and stalks were made at different stages 
of dryness. In some cases the stalks were cut above the ears, (Expt 
No. C,) in others close to the ground. The results are consequently 
discrepant. The averages are interesting as showing the relative 
effects of the fertilizing materials. The figures represent the num- 
ber of pounds of stalks to 100 pounds of shelled corn in 10 ex- 
periments. 

No. OF POUNDS OF STALKS TO 100 LBS. OF SHELLED CORN. 



og 

da 


si 
a 

o 


t 


o 

o"3 
■^< 


.d 

O 




03 

a . 
o.a 

gp- 


0-5 


gSi 


03 


a 


C 


80 


59 


64 


46 


90 


47 


48 


46 




89 


B 




111 


73 


113 


71 


110 


80 


76 




84 


3 


574 


367 


486 


466 


384 


482 


374 


384 


372 


202 


18 


202 


140 


192 


131 


150 




151 


123 


208 


106 


15 


61 


29 


26 


26 


22 




26 


22 


26 




8 


93 


113 


81 


145 


77 




91 


117 


90 




A 


200 


276 


195 


163 


140 


155 


148 


148 




236 


6 


100 


98 


100 


116 


100 




100 


100 


60 




7 


100 


80 


82 


80 


89 


85 


84 


81 


80 


79 


13 


147 


154 


195 


160 


165 




169 


211 







173 143 149 145 129 [176] 128 131 139 133 



108 

The proportion of stalks to shelled corn is smaller in the larger 
crops, and conversely the poorer crops have more stalks for the same 
amount of corn than the better crops. Contrary to what is com- 
monly supposed, the nitrogenous fertilizing materials do not seem 
to have increased the amount of stalks as compared with shelled 
corn. 

I am too well aware of the imperfections of this system of experi- 
menting, and of the danger of basing conclusions upon insufificient 
data, to attempt to formulate any theories froju these experiments. 
It may not be amiss, however, to note some of the ways in which 
the experiments agree or disagree with the principles quoted above, 
and what they have to say as to 

The Best Fehtilizers fok Corn. 
This, in any given case, depends first of all upon the soil and 
season. Leaving these out of account, and judging by the average 
results of the experiments; (1,) we should expect the largest crops 
with complete fertilizers. The mixture of Peruvian guano and mu- 
riate of potash brought the largest crops. Next in order came the 
mixture of Superphosphate and potash salts with the three nitro- 
genous materials, nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, and dried 
blood. Then came the mixture of superphosphate, muriate of 
potash, and nitrate of soda. (2,) The mixture of 300 lbs. of super- 
phosphate and 200 (or 150) lbs. muriate of potash, was the most 
profitable one used. 

The Experiments and Mr. Lawes' Recipe. 

(3) The mixture of superphosphate and nitrate of soda, as 
recommended by Mr. Lawes, often did well, but often failed, espec- 
ially on the poorer soils. It was made safer by addition of potash 
salts, and more profitable by omission of the nitrate of soda. Pot- 
ash in about the amounts demanded by the Ville aud Stockbridge 
formulas brought profitable returns in rather more than half the 
cases. 

The Experiments and the Ville Formula. 

(4) Phosphoric acid, which Ville makes the "dominant" for 
corn, was often, and potash occasionally, the most effective ingre- 
dient. It is questionable whether so much of superphosphate or 
of plaster, as the Ville formula requires, would be generally 
profitable. Though potash was often, and nitrogen occasionally 
profitable, the idea of using such costly material as nitrate of pot- 
ash to tarnish them, is economically absurd. 



109 

The Experiments and the Stockbridge Formula. 

(5) 111 the experiments, a larger proportion of phosphoric acid 
than the Stockbridge formula furnishes was generally profitable. 
The potash was often and the nitrogen generally used at a loss. 
In every trial where as much nitrogen was used as the Stockbridge 
formula requires, a large loss was the result. 

(6) Finally, as regards fertilizers in general and formulas in 
particular, the experiments illustrate the facts, that a great many 
soils want something besides manure to make them yield good 
crops of corn, or anything else ; that a formula to fit all cases is 
simply out of the question and must be so as long as soils and 
seasons continue to differ, but that on soils adapted to the crop, in 
a fair season, the fertilizer* that fits the case will bring a large 
profit. At the same time there are a great many cases in which a 
man does not know what his soil needs, and can better afford to 
use a " complete " fertilizer and pay the penalty of his ignorance 
in the purchase of superfluous materials, than to run the risk of 
losing his crop. Formulas are irrational, but they mark the first 
step in the progress toward rational manuring. 

Chemical Corn Culture. 
The experiments certainly speak well for chemical fertilizers for 
corn. Of course one important question is the after effect. Upon 
this we may expect light from the gentlemen who continue their 
trials through a series of years. A single experiment bearing upon 
this point, but the most extensive one ever made in this country, 
has now been carried on for four years on a field of 91 acres, on 
Waushakum Farm, South ii'ramingham, Mass., by the Sturtevant 
Brothers, who report results in the Scientific Farmer, November, 
1878, as follows: 

"The field was in sod from 1872 to 1875. . . . The 1874 crop of hay 
was scarcely half a ton per acre, and the expeiiment on continuous corn 
growing was commenced in 1875. During these four years of harvest, 
1875 to 1878 inclusive, we have removed per acre two hundred and 
forty-three bushels of corn and sixteen tons of stover, and have applied 
per acre in round numbers the Stockbridge formula for two hundred 
and eighty bushels of corn and its corresponding amount of stover. 
We hence have applied the elements nitrogen, pliosphoric acid, and 
potash, and removed in crop approximately as below : 

Nitrogen. Phosphoric Acid. Potash. 

Have applied 359 lbs. 174 lbs. 432 lbs. 

Have removed 348 " 196 " 576 " 



110 

"... For the four years of croppin;,' wc liuvo l»t'en at an cx])enf«c per 
acre as l)C'lo\v : 
Labor and manure account, four y<-'ars, - - $221.41 

Cr. 
IG tons stover at $8, ----- *128.00 

Total cost of 243 bushels of corn, - ^'.(3.41 

or 38iVo cents per bushel. 

"In the presence of these figures who shall say tliat clieniical farming 
has not been successful in this experiment ? " 

Estimated by the acre, the amounts of valuable ingredients in the 
Waushakum experiments were : nitrogen, 90 lbs., phosphoric acid, 
46 lbs., potash, 108 lbs. The amounts of phosphoric acid and 
potash were just about the same as ir the farm experiments 
above detailed. But while the nitrogen in the latter ranged from 
24 to 72 pounds, the Stockbridge fertilizer on the "Waushakum 
field supplied 90 lbs. per acre. In the experiments as above detailed : 

With nitrogen Costing The nitrogen paid for itself in The average loss wa? 

24 lbs. I 5.63 8 trials out of 39 $0.90 

48 lbs. $10.53 1 " " 14 $4.45 

72 lbs. $15.95 " "9 $8.51 

What the result would have been with 90 lbs. of nitrogen was 
not tested. The Waushakum field brought, on the average for 
four years, 61 bushels of corn per acre. The experiments of 
last season, here reported, gave, under favorable cii'cumstances, 
from 30 to 80 bushels or more per acre. Mr. Sage, of this place, 
got (Expts. C. & S.) on small plots, during two seasons, from 60 to 
84 bushels per acre, with the smallest proportion of nitrogen. Of 
course the Waushakum experiments and these are hardly com- 
parable. But in view of the facts that the mineral fertihzers 
alone succeed so well, and the nitrogen helped so little, is it not 
probable that the results on the Waushakum farm would have 
been more profitable with less than .$18.00 to $20.00 worth of ni- 
trogen per acre? 

When gentlemen as well versed in the principles and profits of 
corn culture, and as prominent in the good work of its encourage- 
ment as the Messrs. Stuitevant, can teach so cheering a lesson with 
a system of fertilizing that ignores both the feeding capacity of the 
crop and the plant-food the soil can supply, is there not ground to 
hope that the economy which allowance for these factors must 
bring, may insure success in com growing with chemicals? I con- 
fess 1 have hardly enough caution to check the belief that with 
commercial fertilizers to supplement their farm manures, the 



Ill 

farmers of the Eastern and New England States may yet find in 
corn one of the main stays of their husbandry. 

DETAILS OF THE EXPERIMENTS. 
To withhold the details of these experiments on which so much careful and 
intelligent labor has been bestowed, would be wrong. A faithful statement of 
these observations of earnest and enlightened farmers, in their own language, will 
be valuable : to the experimenters, to show what their fellow-workers have done, 
and how; to other farmers who, in applying the results to their practice, will find 
profit in comparing the experimenters circumstances with their own ; to help in 
general, to juster criticising and valuation of the experiments, interpretation of the 
results, and improvement of plans and methods, and finally, and most of all, to 
show what good work farmers can do in applying science to practice and aid to 
the doing of more and better work hereafter. The details of the reports have 
been transcribed under my direction with only such alterations as accuracy allows, 
and omissions as the space demands. 

1. E. K. Haight, Freehold, N. J. Soil. — Situation, high ground a little roll- 
ing. Kind, inclining to clay, part lightish yellow, and part a little darker. Dry 
or wet, holds water after a large rain for two weeks before it is fit to jdow. 
Depth of surface soil, about 5 inches. Subsoil very retentive. Other remarks, 
underdrained last spring previous to planting. Previous Treatment and 
Yield, no manure, for some years in grass. 1875-6, just paid for mowing, 
1877, neither mowed nor pastured. Weather during Experiment, did not 
lack for moisture at any time. Fertilizers applied broadcast and harrowed 
in. Tillage, plowed [cultivated?] both ways, twice with two furrows in a row, 
and well hoed. Plots, 13 rods X 20 feet, [= 16 square rods.] Rows, three, feet 
four inches apart. Planted June 6. Harvested September 18. — The reason 
there were no unmanured plots was that I knew there would be no corn unless 
there was sotrething to start it. Although the corn will not pay the expense of 
the fertilizers, I feel myself paid in what I have learned of their nature. 

2. BuEL Landon, South Hero, Vt. Soil. — Situation, upland with gentle 
slope. Kind, clay loam, light brown, with very little vegetable matter left in soil. 
Ttxture, moderately light, finely pulverized, not drained. Dry or wet, no surface 
water, stands drought remarkably well. Depth of surface soil, ten inches. Char- 
acter of subsoil, compact, clay and gravel. Previous Treatment and Yield. 
Previous to 1875 in grass. 1875, manured, ten loads, seventy-two cubic feet per 
load, plowed, planted to corn, crop 40 bushels per acre. 1876, oats, 45 bushels, 
and grass seed which failed. 1877, oats, 30 bushels. Weather, April, first 
part dry then wet. May, very wet. From June 1st to July 20th, hot and dry. 
July 20th until Sept. 1st, very wet. Fertilizers applied broadcast, having 
been mixed with saw-dust, worked in with a harrow. A space 3}^ ft. was left 
between plots and planted to beans. Tillage, corn planted with a Hoeg Corn 
Planter, cultivated and hoed. Plots, dimensions 16 ids. X 1 rd. = 16 sqr. rods. 
Kind of crop, yellow 8 rowed corn. Rows, 3 ft. 4 inches apart. Hills, 30 inches 
apart. Seed, 7 quarts per acre. Planted, June 1st. Harvested, Sept. 10th. 
Pounds allowed for a bushel, 72 lbs. ears. Appearance and Quality of Pro- 
duce. Where yard manure was used the stalks were of good height, the corn 
sound and ears well filled. In all the others, save V, the stalks and ears were 
small. Other remarks. I should have received greater benefit from the fertilizers 



112 

if thtTP had been more rain. The day after jilantinij the com there waj< a lifjht 
shower causing the seed to t:orriiiniit<' finely. Then Ite^'an one of tiie moat 
destructive drouths I ever knew in this section, continuinp ficven weeks without 
rain or dew, killing vegetation outright in niiiny instances, and forcing a prema- 
ture ripening of the grain. When the rain came the com did not Bceover. The 
manured plot did not suffer so much as those where the fertilizers were used. 
[The good effect of the yard manure in this case of drouth is very noticablc.] 

3. G. GiLnKRT CniLD, Swoopes Depot, Va. Soil. — Situation, hilly-upland. 
Kind, clayey loam, lime stone land, commonly called "chestnut land," somewhat 
stony, color grey, little vegetable mutter. Texture, compact, well drained. />ry 
or wet, dry. Depth of surface soil. 8 to 12 inches. Suhsoi/, redclay, porous, drain- 
ing readily. Other remnrks, limestone 4 to 10 feet below the surface. The for- 
est growth on land of this de.>;cription is very large chestnut, white oak, and 
hickory timber. Previous Treatmknt and Yikld. Previous to 187.5, old 
fields exhausted by cropping, and afterwards used for sheep and cattle pasture. 
Had a slight sod of blue-grass with some brown sedge, never had any manure, 
and had not been cropj)ed for 25 years. Weather, April, wet and cold. May, 
wet and cold. June, cool until the 10th, then hot and showery, •fuly, first half 
hot and showery, last half rainy. August, hot and showery first half, then long 
rain, afterward dry. Fertilizers applied broadcast and harrowed in. Till- 
age, cultivated three times, hand-hoed once, weeds pulled by hand. Plots, 98 
feet X 271^ feet = 10 sqr. rods. Hows, 3>^ feet apart. Hills, 14 inches apart 
Pounds allowed for a bushel of produce, 80 lbs. ears. Appearance and Quality 
OF Produce. On the plots where phos. acid was applied the ears were sound, 
being the longest where the complete fertilizer was used. In the other plots the 
ears were short and unsound save where hen manure was applied. 

4. J. H. Stiles, Morris Plains, N.J. Soil.— ^/^waaon, level. iTfnc?, gravel, 
clay and sand, principally gravel and clay, quite stony, round paving stone. 
Texture, pervious. Dry or wet, medium. Depth of surface soil, 4 to 7 inches. 
Subsoil, at 15-18 inches, porous and stony, then a foot of hard-pan. Other 
remarks, no vegetable matter, poorest of poor land. Previous Treatment and 
Yield. In 1855 very poor. Applied 35 bushels oyster shell lime per acre, 
sowed rye, yield, 10 bushels per acre. In 1858, plowed under clover, sowed buck- 
wheat, yield, 10 bushels. Since then, up to 1875, was cropped continuously, with 
addition of small quantities of manure. Received in 1870, 25 bushels of stone 
lime per acre. In 1875-6-7 oats, rye, and corn were the respective crops, no 
manure being added. Weather. .4/)n7, cold, neither wet nor dry. May, cohl to 
the 20tli, rather wet the month through. Jutie, frequent showers, a wet week 
between the 10th and 18th. July, 1st to 25th, good weather, with showers. Rain 
from the 25th to the 30th. August, quite rainy to the middle of the month. 
The season was not too wet for a gravelly, but too wet for a clayey soil. Fer- 
tilizers, applied broadcast, and harrowed in. Other Details and Re- 
marks, a strip 33^2 feet wide was left unnianured between each plot. Plots, 
150 feet X 9)^ feet = 5 sqr. rods. Rows, 3 feet apart. Hills, S)., feet apart, 
four kernels of seed to each hill Planted, May 17th. Harvested, Sept. 17th. 
Remarks. The whole fertilizer was put on \A% instead of on 16 sqr. rods. 
[Part was used for experiments with potatoes.] 

5. J. J. Dearing, Covington, Ga. Soil. — Sitmtion, upland, slightly inclin- 
ing to the south-east. Kind, grey land, red clay base, with very little vegetable 
matter. Tear^Krc, light and loose. Dry or wet, dry. Depth of surface-soil, nhoiit 



113 

one inch. Subsoil, sandy. Previous treatment and yield. Sowed twice 
to oats in six years, the prospective cro])S being about 5 or 6 bushels, but not 
harvested. Grazed the rest of the time, no fertilizer being used at all. Weather. 
April, no record. May, 1^ in. rain-fall. June, 4^ in. rainfall. July, 2 in. rain- 
fall. August, 1 J^ in. rain-f^iU. Fertilizers applied after the corn was up. 
The soil, was plowed away from each side of the CQrn rows, the fertilizers were 
scattered into these furrows and then covered by turning the soil back. Tillage. 
The corn was plowed [cultivated] three times, and hoed after the first plowing. 
Plots. 42 yds. X 20 ft. 10 in. =9.64 sq. rods. Rows, 4i feet apart. Hills, 
3 feet apart. Pounds allowed for a bushel of produce, 70 lbs. of ears. Appear- 
ance AND QUALITY OF PRODUCE. In plots IV and VI the corn was of good 
quality ; in plot V medium, and in all the others poor. 

6. David B. Wertz, Johnstown, Pa. Soil. — Situation, upland, sloping 
to the east and south. Kind, yellow clay with small round stones, no vegetable 
matter. Texture, loose, not drained. Diy or wet, dry. Depth of surface-soil, 5 
to 7 inches. Subsoil, very hard clay, mixed with small sandstones. Previous 
Treatment and Yield. Sowed to oats in 1872, and harvested very small 
crop. Sowed one year since to rye. Weather. The season was cold and 
wet in the spring, and warm and showery towards harvest. Plots. 16 rods X 
1 rod = 16 sq. rods. Hills, 3^ feet apart. Planted, May 6th. Harvested, 
Oct. 1st. 

7. W. C. Kolman, Graham N. C. Soil. Situation, upland, sloping grad- 
ually. Kind, sandy loam, stony, little vegetable matter. Texture, loose, not 
drained. iJrt/ or wet, dry. Depth of surface-soil, 4 inches. Subsoil, stiff red 
clay. Previous Treatment and Yield. Previous to 1877 had been in cul- 
tivation from 40 to 50 years without fertilizers of any kind. In 1877 raised 2b 
bushels of corn to the acre, with j shovel-full of manure to the hill. Weather. 
Cold until middle of June, then drouth until latter part of July, after which 
good rains. Fertilizers applied, in hill mixed with four parts of rich earth. 
Tillage. Plowed, cross-plowed, and subsoiled, harrowed, and only one kernel 
of corn planted in each hill. Plots. 32 rods X i rod = 16 sq. rods. Rows, 
4^ ft. apart. Hills, 3^ ft. apart. Planted, May 6th. Harvested, Nov. 14th. 
Pounds allowed for a bushel of produce, 56 lbs. shelled corn. Appearance and 
Quality of Produce. The corn where phosphoric acid was used was, as a 
rule, sounder than on any other plots. Other Remarks. The drouth here 
cut off all crops on upland one-half where there was no manure, and more than 
that, I think, where fertilizers were used. 

8. Nathan B. Lewis, Pine Hill, R. I. Soil. Situation, upland. Kind, 
gravelly, inclined to brick color, very little vegetable matter. Texture, light, not 
drained. Dry or wet, dry. Depth of surface-soil, 6 inches. Subsoil, gravel. 
Previous Treatment and Yield. Previous to 1875, pasture, cows yarded 
at night. In 1877 rye was grown, but not worth cutting. No manure ever. 
A piece of worn-out pasture on which pitch pines had began to grow. Weather. 

April, . May, dry after planting. June, wet July, rather dry. August, 

moderately wet. Fertilizers applied, broadcast. Plots. 8 rods X 1 rod = 
8 sq. rods. Rows, 3-J feet apart. Hills, 3 feet apart. Kind of corn, white cap 
corn. Amount of seed per acre, 6 qts. Planted, May 23. Harvested, Oct. 8th. 
Pounds allowed per bushel, 70 lbs. ears. Appearance and Quality of Pro- 
duce. Where phosphoric acid was used and in the manure plot, the ears were 

14 



114 

of fair size ami the kernels plump. Willi aslic.-; the ottiw were Hiiuill, hut with 
quite plump licrncls. On ail the other plots the curs were small, and the kernelH 
shrunken. 

9. Z. E Jamesok, Irasliur;jli, Vt SorL. Situutiou, uplanti, over a frentle 
swell. Kiml, sandy, dark hrown, little vcj.'Ctablc matter; ehani;es to clayey 
loam towards west end. Good corn land. Texture, lifiht, afford.s natural drain- 
a<^e. Dry or wet, rather dry, water never stands on surface in summer. Depth 
of surfai-e-soil , 6 to 8 inches. Sttlisoil, so porous as to afford natural drainage. 
Pkkvious Tueat.ment and Yield. In 1872 potatoes, in 1873 oats. In 1875 
no manure, hay 1,500 lbs. to the acre. In 1876 no manure, hay 1,000 lbs to the 
acre. In 1877 no manure, 800 lbs. hay to the acre. Weather. May, land 
dry enough to work. June, severe frost the 7th, afterwards warm. July, warm 
and favorable. August, rather dry for the best results. Fertilizers applied, 
broadcast. 1^ feet left between the plots. Tillage. 3 or 4 stalks of corn and 
three of beans to each hill. Very few weeds, not enouj^h to reduce the crop. 
Plots. 16 rods X 1 rod = 16 sq. rods. Rows, .3i feet apart. Hills, 3j inches 
apart. Amount of seed, 8 qts. per acre. Planted, May 18th. Harvested, Strpt. 
1 9th. Amount allowed for one bushel of produce, 2 bushels ears. Other Remarks. 
June 7th, a hard frost killed the corn down to the surface of the ground. 
I supposed the land mijrht i)e best on the north side, plot 0, as it was lowest and 
nearest level, but the crop does not show it. The south side was hij^hest and 
drycst, and I left no unmauured ])lot on that side, but the small yield on IV, VIII 
[plaster], shows that it was very poor. The whole piece was of short growth 
and very branching because of the killing by frost. I do not think the beans 
lessened the com crop at all. 

10. Ed. F. Smith, Tunbridge, Vt. Soil. — Situation, low land, level. Kind, 
heavy loam, not adapted to corn, but excellent for grass. Texture, compact. 
D)y or wet, wet. Depth of surface soil, from 1 to 2 feet. Subsoil, clay. Other 
remarks, is very low land, in this vicinity commonly called "made land." Is 
flowed by the stream every spring, which is as good as a coat of manure. Pre- 
vious treatment and yield. — Previous to 1S75, grass for nearly 20 years, 
manured by top dressing. 1875, manured with muck, 1^ tons hay to the acre. 
1876, no manure, 60 bush, ears of corn to the acre. 1877, no manure, 60 bush, 
ears of corn per acre. Weather. — ^/)/(7, wet. May, wet, June, wet. July, dry. 
August, dry. Sept., dry. Fertilizers applied broadca.<t and plowed in lightly. 
Tillage. — About 4 stalks of corn to the hill. Other Remarks. — The months 
of May, June, and July, were so wet that the corn looked as though it would be 
a perfect failure, but our splendid fall gave it a chance to ripen. The corn wiis 
a small and early variety. The width of the unmanured strips [between the 
plots], was four feet, on which I planted beans and got a splendid crop. I was 
very careful not to mix the fertilizers. Plots — 16 rods X I rod = 16 square 
rods. Rows, 3 feet apart. Hills, 3 feet apart. Kind of crop, Lost Nation Corn. 
Amount of seed per acre, i bushel. Planted, May 24th. Harvested, Sept. 2oth. 
Pounds allowed for a bushel of produce, 70. Remarks. — I could see no material 
difference in the growth. The worms worked on the corn in places nil over the 
piece, and this of course hurt the crop some. 

11. L. W. Stone & Son, Waverly, Pa. Soil. — Situation, u|)land, hilly. 
Kind, clayey loam, rather strong, light brown with little vegetable matter. 
Te.Tture, loose for the kind of soil, underdraincd. Dry or wet, dry. Depth of sur- 
face soil, 10 to 12 inches. Subsoil, a compact hard-pan at 16 to 20 inches. Other 



115 

remarks, this field was selected because known to be exhausted and so inaccessa- 
ble from the barn. Previous treatment and yield. — Previous to 1875 no 
regular rotation. 1875, Oats, fair crop. 1876, manured with 40 bushels of lime, 
rye, 20hushcls. 1877, hay, very light. Weather. — .4jon7, dry and mild. May, 
first half dry and mild, second half wet ;ind cold. June, cool with frequent rains. 
July, warm, with frequent rains. August, same as July. Fertilizers, how 
APPLIED. — Each package was mixed with muck, and the mixture scattered in 
or near the hills. The distance between the rows bounding the plots was 1 foot 
greater than in other cases. Lime, a small handful to each hill. Plots, 15 rods 
X 17 feet == 16 sq. rods. Rows, 3^ feet apart. Hills, 3 feet apart. Amount or 
seed per acre, 6 qts. Planted, May 16th. Harvested, Sept. 13th. Pounds al- 
lowed for a bushel of produce, 70 lbs. of ears. Appearance and quality of 
PRODUCE. — Corn on plots worth nothing, and with lime was poor or very poor, 
plaster a little better, hen manure fair, and with phos. acid, sound, ripening early. 
With yard manure, very sound. 

12. Halsey P. Clarke, Wyoming, R. I. — Soil. Situation, level. Kind, 
loam. Depth of surface .<to?7, about 8 laches iS'jf/'soiV, gravelly and hard. Pre- 
vious TREATMENT AND YIELD. — Had been in mowing since 1869, yield of hay ^ 
to I tons per acre. Fertilizers applied, broadcast and harrowed before 
planting. Tillage. — Cultivated, hoed three times. Plots. — 350 feet X 7 feet 
= 9 sq. rods. Rows, 3^ feet apart. Hills, 3^ feet apart. Amount of seed per 
acre, about 6 qts. • Planted, May 11th. Harvested, Nov. 1st. 

13. Seth H. Rising, West Rupert, Vt. Soil. Situation, level, elevated 
about 10 feet above a brook. Kind, gravelly, inclining to sandy loam, light 
brown, some vegetable matter. Texture, loose, not artificially drained. Dry or 
wet, dry. Depth of surface soil, 10 inches. Subsoil, gmvel. Other remarks, some 
small stones, evidently have been located in running water. Previous treat- 
ment AND yield. — No manure from 187.5-7. Crops, 1875, oats, 15 bush, to the 
acre. 1876, sorrel and weeds. 1877, fodder corn, 1 ton to the acre, green. 
Weather. — April, last part warm and wet. May, first part wet and cold, last 
part dry and warmer. June, first part dry, followed by some showers. Frost 
about the middle of the month. July, warm with showers the last part. August, 
dry, very little rain through the month. Fertilizers applied, broadcast, and 
lightly plowed under. Tillage. — Plowed deep, dragged, plowed lightly, culti. 
vated three times and hand-hoed once. Other remarks. — The plots were as 
near equal in quality and position as could often be found. If any difference it 
would be in favor of the unmanured plot. An extra space of two feet was left 
between the outside rows of each plot. 

14. C. Miller & Son, Pomfret, Vt. Son.. — Situation, low land, inclined 
to the East, woods on the North. Kind, light loam, free from stones, color dark, 
little vegetable matter. Texture, light soil, not drained. Dry or wet, medium 
dry. Depth of surface soil, 16 to 24 inches. Subsoil, sand and clay hard pan. 
Previous Treatment and Yield. — 1872, received 15 cords manure and planted 
to corn. Sowed to wheat in 1873. 1^ tons of hay in 1874. In 1875-6-7 no 
manure, and produced from 1 to 1 i tons of hay per acre. Weather. May, cold 
and wet. June, cold and wet. July, hot and dry. August, warm and dry. Fer- 
tilizers, how Applied. — Sown broadcast and harrowed in. Plots, 12 rods 
X 18 rods = 13i^ sq. rods. Rows, 3 feet apart. Hills, 3 feet apart. Amount oj 
seed per acre, 8 qts. Planted, May 18th. Harvested, Sept. 14th. Remarks. — 
The crop was injured by a wet soil. 



116 

15. CiiAKLES B. Gale, Pliiiiificld, Vt. Soil. — Silitalion, lower terrace of 
Wiuooski river, ten feet above water. Kind, light jrcilow sandy loam, free from 
stones. Tex/ure, lifjht, not needinf^ draining. Dry or toet, dry. Depth of surface 
soil, from four to six inches. Subsoil, yellow loam. Previods treatment 
AND YIELD. — No manure in 187.5-6-7. Crop, grass, | ton per acre in 1877. 
Weather. — April, warm and dr}'. May, quite favorable. Juni', severe frost 
on 7th. -full/, . August, very favorable for growth and ripening. Fer- 
tilizers APPLIED, broadcast, and covered with cultivator harrow. Tillage. 
Cross cultivated, and hand-hoed twice. Plots. — HS^afeetx 29,",, fi.et=16square 
rods. /^ou.'.s 3 feet apart, /////s, 3 feet apart. A7nd o/cro/), 8-rowed yellow corn. 
Amount of seed per acre, l}^C[ts. Planted, May 22d. Uarrcsted, Sept. 1 2th. Pounds 
allowed for a bushel of produce, 62 lbs. shelled corn. Appearance and quality of 
THE crop. — With nothing, very poor, with nitrogen fair, phos. acid inferior, 
potash not so good as nitrogen, and all the others from good to very good, yard 
manure being the best. Other Remarks. — Would have made the plots longer 
and narrower had I received the pamphlet sooner. Plots. — 8 rodsX2 rods=I6 
sq. rods, /^ows, 3)^ feet apart. //tV/s, 3)^ feet apart. P/anW, May 16th. Har- 
vested, Sept. lOih. Pounds allowed per bushel of pnduce, 72 lbs. shelled corn. 
Appearance and quality of the crop. — All hurt by frost in June; IV and 
V did the best; VI was the poorest. None did so well as some manured in the 
hill close beside them. 

16. Jonathan. Durham, Etna, N. Y. Soil. — Situation, slightly rolling 
upland. Kind, light-colored, gravelly loam, with few stones, but little vegetable 
matter. Texture, light, loose, not drained. Dry or wet, dry. Depth of surface 
soil, six to eight inches. Subsoil, stony, clay. Previous treatment and 
yield. — No manure in 1872-3-4-5-6-7, grass in 1872-3, corn in 1874, 30 bush, 
oats per acre in 1875, 1^ tons grass per acre in 1876, and ^ ton in 1877. 
Weather. April, good average. May, cold and wet. June and July, warm and 
wet. August, warm and dry. Fertilizers applied. — In the hill by hand. 
Tillage. — Cross-cultivated and hand hoed. Plots. — 17 rods 10 ft. by 15 ft. = 16 
sq. rods. Hills, 3 feet apart. Amoimt of seed per acre, 5 qiiarts. Planted, May 
29th. Harvested, Sept. 24th. Pounds allowed for a bushel of produce, 75 lbs. 
shelled corn. Appearance and quality op crop.— O, I, and VII, poor; the 
remainder did well, II doing the best. 

17. A. B. Clark, Milton, N. Y. Soil. — Situation, hilly upland, sloping to 
west. Kind, stony loam, but little vegetable matter. Texture, loose, not drained. 
Dry or wet, dry. Depth of surface soil, 7 to 9 inches. Subsoil, hard and compact. 
Previous treatment and yield. — Before 1875, no manure for a number of 
years, in grass. Manure, none in 1875-6-7. Crop, about 1 ton of hay and 
weeds in 1875-6-7. — Weather. — Good season for growing, frequent rains in the 
first of the season. Fertilizers applied. — Mixed with dirt and sowed broad- 
cast, and harrowed in. Tillage. — Furrowed both ways, planted in hills, culti- 
vated, and hand-hoed. Other remarks — 7 ft. left between plots. Plots. — 
16 rods XI rod = 16 sq. rods. Hills. — 3^ to 3^ ft. apart. Kind of crop, "yel- 
low flint" corn. P/a/iW, May 16th. //«;T(s/erf, Nov. 9th. Pounds allowed for 
bushel of produce, 75 lbs. ears for 1 bushel shelled corn. Appearance and qual- 
ity OF PRODUCE. — No manure, many ears soft; II, soft and light; the rest 
good and heavy. 

18. M. W. Ladd, Woodstock, Vt. Soil. — 5ii«a<ion, upland, side-hill, facing 
east. Kind, sandy loam. Texture, loose. l)ry or wrt, dry. Depth of surf ice si>ilt 



117 

8 inches. Subsoil, rather loose. Previous treatment and yield. — ^From 
1871 to 1875 in grass. Manure, none in 187.5-6-7. Crojt, 1 ton hay per. acre in 

1875, ^ ton in 1876 and -^ ton in 1877. Weather. — April, warm. May, cold. 
June, warm. July, hot and dry. August, warm and wet. Fertilizers 
APPLIED. — Broadcast. Tillage. — Cross-cultivated and hoed twice. Plots. — 
1 If rods X 21 feet=16 sq. rods. Z?ou;s, 3 ft. apart. iZ(V/s, .3 ft. apart. Planted, 
May 18th. Harvested, Sept. 10th. Pounds allowed for bushel of produce, 76 lbs. 
ears. Appearance in quality of crop. — Potash plot was of the darkest 
green, yielded less ; all very sound. Other remarks. — There was about 1 ton 
of fodder per acre. 

19. R. Bradley, Brattleboro, Vt. Soil. — Situation, upland. Kind, sandy 
loam. Texture, light. Dry or wet, dry. Depth of surface soil, 6 to 8 inches. 
Subsoil, sandy. Previous treatment and yield — Before 1875 and till 1878, 
pasture. Fertilizers applied. — Broadcast and harrowed in. Plots. — 16 
sq. rods. iRows, 3 ft. apart. Seed per acre, i hxishe\. Planted, M&j 20th. liar 
vested, Sept. 1st. Appearance and quality of prodce. — 0, III, and VII 
were medium, the rest poor. 

20. Wm. F. Segar, Wyoming, R. I. Soil — Situation, uip\aud,\eve\. Kind, 
sandy loam, no stones, little vegetable matter, rather light color. Texture, loose, 
not drained. Dry or wet, medium. Crop endures well wet or dry weather. 
Depth of surface soil, eight inches. Subsoil, yellow clay loam. Previous treat- 
ment and yield. Previous to 1875 was in grass two or three years, crop about 
1 ton per acre. In 1875-6-7 no manure was applied, and the respective crops 
were oats 30 bushels, clover 1^ tons per acre, and clover and herdsgrass 1 ton 
per acre. Weather. — May, rather wet. June, rather wet. July, rather dry. 
August, rather dry. Fertilizers How Applied. Sown broadcast and har- 
rowed in. Tillage. Corn covered by hand, hand-hoed twice, and thinned 
to two stalks in the hill at second hoeing. Other Remarks. The young plants 
were badly pulled by birds, but though the missing hills were replanted they did 
not mature much corn. Plots 166 ft. X28 ft. = 17 sq. rods. Rows, 3| feet 
apart. .&27/s, 21 inches apart. Amount of seel, 12 qts. -per acre. Planted, May 
23d. Harvested, Oct. lOth-llth. Pounds alloiced for a bushel of produce, b& oi 
shelled corn. Remarks. The general appearance of the crop while growing 
was thrifty; average quality very good, with about 10 per cent.- of poor corn. 
In getting the amount of corn, two bushels of poor corn reckoned as equal to 
one of good corn. 

21. James K. Tobet, Calais, Vt. Soil. — Situation, upland, very little 
sloping. Kind, dark loam overlying slate rock. Texture, loose, easily worked, 
under drained. Dry or wet, dij. Depth of surface s'il, eight to ten Inches. Sub- 
soil, similar to surface, but more compact. Previous treatment and yield. 
Before 1875 in grass. Manure, none in 1875, 4 cords compost in '76, and the 
same and phosphate in hills in '77. Crop, 1 ton hay per acre 1875, f ton hay in 

1876, 150 bushels potatoes per acre in 1877. Weather. Season dry and 
rather cool. Average season for com. Fertilizers applied. Mixed with saw- 
dust, broadcast and thoroughly mixed to depth of three inches. Tillage, culti- 
vated and hand-hoed. Other remarks. A space of two feet was left between 
the plots. Plots. 6^*^ sq. rods. Rows, 3 ft. apart. Kind of crop, Eight rowed 
" Pedigree " corn. P/onied, May 16th. Harvested, Sept. 20th. Pounds allowed 
fm- bushel of produce, 75 lbs. ears. Appearance and quality of crop. I, II, 



118 

and V (lid the l»c8t. VII had the heaviest stalks, and 00 was quite j:recii at har. 
vest. • 

22. OiCEUO Ri.AKE, Kent, O. Son.. — Situation, upliiiid, slJL'htiy rolling. 
Kind, c!a\ey ;ind f;ravelly loam, with a fair amount of ve^retable matter. Tex- 
ture, mostly li>;ht and loose. Lhy or wft, dry — natural drainage. Depth of surface 
soil, seven to i.iiie inches. Subsoil, clayey and gravelly. Previous treatment 
AND YIELD. 187.5 110 manure, oats rtO bushels per acre. 187C, barn-yard manure, 8 
to 10 wagon loads, and wheat 14i bu.shels per acre. 1877, no manure, timothy 
hay H tons per acre. Weather. — April, warm, with frequent showers. Afuy, 
like April to the 10th, then cooler, with some frosty nights. June, warm to hot 
and moist. July, several hard rains, hot during the month. August, very hot and 
dry ; no rain during the entire month. Fertilizers how ai*plied. Scattered 
over the surface on e:ich side of the low, not mixed with the .soil before planting. 
Tillage. Simply cultivated with a horse shuffle-hoe twice. Plots. 23^ rods 
Xlli feet=16 sq. rods. Roivs, 3§ ft. apart. IliUs,'.i\ feet apart. Amount of 
seed. 5^ qts. per acre. Planted, May 1.5th-16th. HarviMid, Oct. 18th-22d. 
Pounds allowed for a bushel of produce, 70 pounds of ears. 

23. Ora Paul, Woodstock, Vt. Soil. — Situation, quite level upland. Kind, 
loam. Texture, light, not drained. Dry or wet, dry. Depth of surface soil, eight 
to ten inches. Subsoil, clay. Previous treat,ment and yield. Before 1875, 
com, then oats, and finally grass. Kind of manure, none in 187.5-6-7. Crop, 1^ 
tons hay per acre in 1875, 1^ tons in 1876, and 1 tou in 1877. Weather. Sea- 
son was neither wet nor dry, and warm enough to make an excellent season for 
corn. Fertilizers applied. Sown broi'.dcast and harrowed in. Tillage. 
Planted by hand, cultivated twice, and hand hoed once. Other remarks. 
There was a space of two feet between the plots. Plot. 16 rods XI rod- 16 
sq. rods. Rows, 3^ ft. apart. Hills, 2i ft. apart. Seed per acre, ^ bush. 
Planted, May 24th. Harvested, Sept. 23d. Pounds allowed for bushel of produce, 
75 lbs. ears. 

24. Edward Hicks, Old Westbury, N. Y. Soil. — Situation, level. Kind, 
sandy loam, no stones, but little vegetable matter. Texture, light, loose Dry 
or wet, dry. Depth of surface soil, 10 inches. Subsoil, 4 to 6 inches loam, then 
gravel. Other remarks. The soil is poor compared with most land in the town. 
Previous treatment and yield. Before 1875, for .six years, evergreen trees. 
Manure, none in 1875, city stable manure in 1876, cow-yard manure in 1877. 
Cro/), part trees and fotkJer-corn in 1875, 65 bnsh. corn per acre in 1876, good 
yield fodder-eorn in 1877. Weather. The season was favorable for corn. 
Fertilizers applied, by hand in hills, and covered with a hoe. Tillage. 
Ground kept well cultivated and clean. 3 stalks to a hill. Plots. 206 ftx 
6i ft. = about 5 sq. rods. Hills, 3 fr. 3 in. apart. Pounds allowed for bushel of 
produce, 70 lbs. ears. 

26. J. H. Stiles, Morris Plains, N. J. Soil — Situation, level. Kind, clay 
|i)am mixed with sand and gravel, some stony. Texture, pervious. Dry or wet, 
neither. Depth of surface soil, 4 to 7 inches. Subsoil, hard pan. Other remarks, 
no vegetable matter, poorest of poor land. Weather. Same as No. 4. Fer- 
tilizers APPLIED broadcast and harrowed in. Tillage, same as No. 4. 
Plots. 60 ft. X 9 jV ft- = ^ sq. rods. Bows, 3^ ft. apart. Hills, 3 ft. apart. 
Kind of crop. Early Vermont potatoes. Seed per acre, 5 bushels. Planted, May 
17ih. Harv'sted, September 17th. Pounds ulhtwed fur bushel of produce, 50 lbs. 



119 

Appearance ajjo Qoalitt of Produce. I, III, 0, IV, VII, and VIII were 
small and inferior, the rest were of a fair size; those with yard manure were 
somewhat knotty and scabby. 

27. W. J. Bartholomew, Putnam, Conn. Soil. — Situation, level. .Kind, 
loam, with some gravel. Dri/ or wet, average. Depth of surface soil, 7 or 8 inches. 
Subsoil, compact clay and gravel. Previous Treatment and Yield. Ma- 
nure, yard manure in 187.5, none in 1876, and yard manure in 1877. Crop, 2 
tons hay per acre in 1875, beans, corn, and vegetables in 1877. Plots. lOi 
rods X 14 ft. = 8 sq. rods. Rows, 3^ ft. apart. Rills, 18 inches 'apart. Kind of 
crop, Early Rose Potatoes. Planted, May 27th. Harvested, Sept. 27-30th. 
Appearance and Quality of Produce. 8 to 10 per cent, rotted; plats con- 
taining bone black gave smoothest potatoes. Other Remarks. Part of No. 
VIII had phister applied at planting; the balance of plot had it applied at dif- 
ferent times; no difference in crop. 

28. R. P. Wolcott, Holland Patent, N. Y. Soil. — Situation, upland, 
slope south. ^«W, dark brown loam. Texture, Wght and' open. Dry or wet, 
dry. Depth of surface soil, 6 to 7 inches. Subsoil, clay loam, underlaid by lime 
rock. Previous Treatment and Yield. Before 1875 in grass without ma- 
nure for 7 years. Manure, 20 loads stable manure in 1875; none in 1876-7. 
Crop, I ton hay per acre in 1875, 1^ tons in 1876; 8 tons fodder-corn per acre in 
1877. Weather. April, warm and dry. May, coo\ and dry, occasional .show- 
ers. June, cool and dry; frost on the 7th, heavy rain the 11th. Jtdii/, hot and 
dry ; heavy shower the 22d, warm and wet the last week. August, first week 
warm and moist; heavy thunder storm 17-20th ; much rain 25th. Fertilizers 
applied. Fertilizers sown in furrow by hand. A small log of wood, driven 
full of hard wood pins, was dragged through the" furrow by one-man power to 
mix in the fertilizers. Tillage. Seed dropped in furrows, then covered by 
smoothing harrow. Other Remarks. Space between plots one 'rod wide. 
Plots. 16 rods X 1 rod =: 16 sq. rods. Rows, 33 inches apart. Hills, 12 to 
18 inches apart. Kind of crop. Early Rose potatoes. Seed per acre, 9 bushels. 
Planted, May 7th. Harvested, Oct. 12th-Nov. 14th. Pounds allowed for bushel of 
produce, 60 pounds. Appearance and Quality of Crop. They were all 
good, although not a large yield; were of excellent quality, haying but few 
rotten ones. The rust struck them the first week in August, and in ten days 
they were all dead. There was great difference between the plots in color, etc. 
Ill was very upright in growth and of a bright green. Other Remarks. Ni- 
trogen and plaster were a detriment to the crop. 

29. S. W. Crocker, St. Albans, Maine. Soil. — Kind, slaty in part, with 
some clayey and yellow loam, somewhat stony. Texture, light. Dry or wet, 
mostly dry. Depth of surface soil, 15 inches. Subsoil, hard pan. Previous 
Treatsient and Yield. Previous to 1877 was in grass for several years. 
Weather. May, cold and wet. June, cold and wet. July, hot. August, hot 
and wet. Fertilizers how applied. Applied in hill and well mixed with 
soil. Tillage. Cultivated and hoed once. Other Remarks. On the clay 
soil the potash did much good; on the slatey soil, scarcely any. Plots. 31^ 
rods X 6i ft. = 12 sq. rods. Rows, 3^ inches apart. Hills, 14 inches. Pounds 
allowed for bushel of produce, 60. 

30. J. R. KiNBRSON, Peacham, Vt. Soil. — Situation, upland, little inclined 
to southeast. Kind, sandy loam, free from stones. Texture, loo.^e, easy working. 



120 

Dry or wet, Ary. Depth ofsurfaci- s<vl^ acooii «K*|»lli. .Suiso//, sand v . Pkkviouh 
THKATMENT AND YiKLD. — Croppcil Fcpeatt'iUy witli potatocs, prain, and ;:ras8, 
for fifty years before 1875. Munurf, none, in 1875-6-7. Crop, '.i ton hay per 
acre in 1875-6; hay not worth cuttint; in 1877. Weather. — A]>ril, warm. 
May, warm at first, la<»t part coM. June, cohl to 15th ; hard frost in valleys the 
6th. ./"('/, hot and dry fir!>t 20 days; fine showers hist of month. August, very 
warm. Fe«tii,i/kks applied. — Broadcast. Tillage — Potatoes in rows, 2 
halves in a liill ; corn in drills, 1 kernel in six inches. Other remarks. — 
Groimd plowed hi fall of '77 ; had not been plowed for nine years. Plots. — 16 
rods XI rod = 16 sq. rods. Rows, 3/^ ft. apart. Hills, drilled, 1 kernel every 
six inches. Kiud of crop, j-^ each plot, corn, 3^ potatoes. , Planted, May 13- 
15th. Harcested, corn, Sept. 2d; potatoes, Oct. .5-IOth. Pounds allowed for 
bushel of pi oduce, 80 lbs. ears; 60 lbs. potatoes. Appearance and qdality op 
CROP.'-S and 7 did the best; 3 and 6 had light preen tops; 1, 2, 4, and 5, dark 
preen; the corn corresponds with potatoes. Other remarks. — 1 to 1)^ tons 
corn-stalks per acre. 

31 and 32. Moodt P. Marshall, Lancaster, N. H. Soil. — Situation, 
level upland. Kind, dark, stony land ; stones removed. Texture, light, not 
drained. Dry or wet, medium. Depth of surface soil, 8 inches. Othei- rrmarks, 
ori;:inal growth mostly hard wood. Previous treatment and yield. — In 
1868-9 planted to potatoes; in 1870 sowed to oats and seeded to herdsgrass and 
clover. Manure, none in 1875-6-7. Crop, \}/^ tons hay per acre in 1875-6; 55 
bushels oats to acre in 1877. Weather. — April, warm and fine. May, cold 
and rather wet. .Time, good weather. July, wet and rather cool. August, fine. 
Fertilizers applied. — Scattered along the drill and thoroughly mixed with 
soil. Tillage. — Cut one eye in a piece and two pieces in a hill; well hoed 
twice. Plots. — 31, 8 rods x 6 ft. =3 sq. rods ; 32, 5 rods X 6 ft.=:nearly 2 sq. rods. 
Rows, 3 ft. apart. Hills, 1 foot apart. Kind of crop, potatoes. Seed per acre, 12 
bush. Planted, 31, May 18; 32, June Ist. Harvested, 31, Oct. 10; 32, Oct. 14. 
Appearance and quality of produce. — The quality corresponds to the 
yield. 

33. Hiram A. Cutting, Lunenburg, Vt. Soil. — Situation, nearly level 
upland. Kind, yellowish stony loam. Texture, light, not drained. L>ry or wet, 
dry. Depth of surface soil, 18 inches. ^Su/i-soiV, hard gravel. Previous treat- 
ment AND YIELD. — For fifteen years hay wiis cut off, and pastured in fall, and 
nothing put back. Weather. — April, wet. May, dry but showery. June, 
showery. July, dry. August, wet. Fertilizers applied. — Accordinp to 
directions. Tillage. — Broken up just before planting; the sod was turned 
over, and seed was planted on top of the sod after harrowing. Other 
remarks. — The potato crop was light everywhere; the tops were killed by frost 
in the spring, and the wet weather was hard for potatoes. Plots. — 32 rodsx 
^ rod=16 sq. rods. Rows, 2J ft. apart. Hills, i}^ feet apart. Seed per acre, 10 
bushels. Planted, May I7th, Harvested, Oct. 7th. Pounds allowed for bushel of 
produce, 60. Appearance and quality of crop. — 4, 5, 7 did the best, both 
as to size and quality ; 6 and VIII stood next; yard manure yielded well, Imt the 
potatoes rotted badly; and 1 had very small weak tops; 7 had the best tops, — 
very stout and heavy. 

34. A. P. Arnold, Vineland, N. J. Soil. — Situation, nearly level upland. 
Kind, sandy loam, sand predominating; very little vegetable matter. Texture, 



121 

loose, not drained. Drif or wet, very dry. Depth of surface soil, 3 or 4 inches. 
Subsoil, mostly sand, yellow tinged by clay, some gravel, good sweet-potato land. 
Other remarks, the land was partly cleared, then abandoned. Previous treat- 
ment AND YIELD. — In sprout till 1876. il/ane(re, compost, handful in hill 1876-7. 
Crop, 15 bush, corn per acre ; 1 ton millet (without manure,) per acre in 1876 ; 10 
bush, corn per acre in 1877. Weather. — April, wet and cold. May wet and 
cold; heavy frost the 15th. June, cold and wet. July, good growing month. 
August, first half wet, last dry. Fertilizers applied. — In drills, and cultivated 
in. Tillage. — The plants were set the usual way, the same as one would set 
cabbage plants if in a hurry; cultivated twice, hand-hoed three times. Other 
remarks. From the middle of August till harvest we had no rain. I think it 
hurt the crop very much. Plots. — 367 ft. X 6 ft. = 8 sq. rods. Rows, 3 ft. apart. 
Hills, 1)^ feet apart. Planted, May 21st. Harvested, Oct. 19th. Pounds allowed 
for bushel of produce, bO. Appearance and quality of crop. — 1,4, 5, and 6 
did well ; 2 was poor, but not so bad as 0. 

35. Same as 34. 

36. M. Cheseboro, Mandarin, Fla. Soil. — Situation, level. Kind, fine 
sand, very little vegetable matter. Texture, close and compact for sand. Dry or 
wet, medium. Depth of surface soil, 3 inches. Subsoil, yellow sand 18 inches, then 
white sand, and at a depth of 4 or 5 feet red clay. Previous Treatment and 
YIELD, before 1876 little cultivated. Cropped in sweet potatoes and melons, 
with no manure except a little in the hills in 1876-7. Plots, 164 feet X 5 feet 
= nearly 3}4 sq. rods. Rows, 5 feet apart. Hills, (plant to plant,) 10 inches. 
Planted, April 25th-June 8th. Harvested, Oct. 8th-23d. Appearance and 
Quality of Produce. There was but little difference in the appearance of the 
vines. Muriate of potash did best. V. did well. 0. was small and stringy. 
Bone black, small and long. 

37. Charles Parry, Cinnaminson, N. J. Soil. — Situation, upland, sloping 
S.E. Kind, sandy. Texture, light. Dry or wet, dry. Depth of surface soil, 6 
inches. Subsoil, sand and gravel. Previous Treatment and y'ield, no 
manure in 1875-6-7. Crops, Asparagus plants. Weather, fair growing 
season. Fertilizers Applied, in the row. Tillage, sprouts set on ridges, 
cultivated three times, plowed once, hand-hoed three times. Plots, 200 feet X 
3 feet =2.2 sqr. rod.s. Rows, S feet apart. Hills, (plant to plant,) 18 inches. 
Planted, May 15th. Harvested, Nov. 1st. Appearance and Quality of 
Crop, 13 and yard manure did the best. 1, 3,4, and 5, were fair; 2 and no 
manure were small and poor. Other remarks, only part of the fertilizers were used. 

38. Prof. J. R. Farrington, Orono, Maine. Description same as corn exper- 
ment, No. A. 

39. Same as 21. 

40. Henry Lane, Cornwall, Vt. Soil. — Kind, clay loam. Depth of surface 
soil, from 1 to 4 feet. Subsoil, slate rock. Previous Treatment and yield, 
has been used for an onion crop for several years, and heavily manured each 
year excepting 1877. Fertilizers Applied, broadcast and harrowed in. 
Tillage, kept free from weeds and well tilled. Plots, 8 sqr. rods. Roivs, 2 
feet apart. Kind of crop, sugar beets. 

41. J. J. Bearing, Covington, Ga. Soil. — Situation,' u\->\sbnd, slightly in- 
clined to west. Kind, red clay. Texture, compact. Dry or wet, dry. Depth of 
surface soil, scarcely any. Subsoil, red clay. Other remarks, this land was selected 

15 



122 

hfcausc it was worn out nw\ had no vc>;et»itio!i on it except a few stunted pine 
bushes, and a few bunches of iiroom-sedge. pKEvions Treatment and yield, 
had not been cultivated in five years on account of poverty in plant food. 
Weather, May, l^ in. rain. June, A% in. rain. July, 2 in. Auqust, 1 j^g in. 
rain. Fertilizers Applied, drilled in furrow and bi-dded with turning plow. 
Tillage, land broken first week in May. Then plowed with .scooter and har- 
rowed. Then bedtled ;is above. The beds ()])pncd with a small scooter and seed 
.•sown in furrow and covered with a double coulter. After coming up was immedi- 
ately sided with a straddling barrow. Then choi)ped to a rej^'ular .stand. First 
week in July planted with a solid sweep, hand-hoed, and the last of July laid with 
a solid swee)>, three furrows in the row. Plots, 44 yds. X f> yds. = 7.27.3 sq. rods. 
/foH's, .3 feet apart. 6Vfrf /j«" vlcre two bushels. P/anW, May 10th. Ilanested, 
Nov. Island 29th. Appearance and Quality of Crop, 4, 5, 6, had longer 
staple than the others; 1, 3, 7, less than with no manure. 

42. WiLLARD R. Hall, Albion, Fla. Soil. — Situation, hilly. Kind, sandy, 
little or no vegetable matter. Texture, liglit. Dri/ or wet, dry. iJejith of surface 
soil, 3 inches, iyubsoil, yellow sand. Other remarks, newly cleared land, in culti- 
vation but one season. Weather. — May, dry. June, wet, rain nearly every 
day. July, wet. Aw/ust, dry, rained twice a week. Fertilizers Applied, 
in the drill. Tillage, planted from 4 to 6 inches apart^ cultivated twice with 
horse, arid once with hand-hoe. Plots, 209 ft. X lOM ft. = 8 sq. rods. Rows, 
2}'n feet apart. Seed per Acre, half bushel. Planted, June Ist. Harvested, 
Sept. 1st. Pounds allowed for bushel of Prodwe, ^0. Appearance and Qual- 
ity of Crop, .5, 6, 7, did the best. Nothing, Nitrogen and Phosphoric Acid 
were equally poorly. 

A. Prof. J. R. Farrington, Orono, Me. Soii>.— Situation, nearly level, 
with slight sweel running across the center sufficient for surface drainage. Kind, 
heavy clay. Lhy or wet, moist. Texture, compact. Previous Treatment 
AND Yield. In meadow for ten years. In 187- 3 plots running at right angles 
to and entirely across these plots received a manuring of mineral and nitroge- 
nous fertilizers. This would, of course, affect all alike. Fertilizers how ap- 
plied. Mixed with sawdust, carefully distributed and worked into the soil. 
Tillage, the soil was broken up six inches deep ten days before planting, and pul- 
verized thoroughly with a Randall harrow. Other Remarks. The soil had a 
remarkable uniformity of appearance. Plots. (3.5 rods + 3 ft.) x 7 J ft. = 
16 sq. rods. 

B. W. J. Bartholomew, Putnam, Conn. Soil. — Situation, summit of hill. 
Kind, black, cla3'ey loam, yellow below ; at Hor 2 ft. becomes a stony, compact 
clay. Texture, loose surface if not trodden when wet. Dry or wet, variable with 
the season. Depth of surface soil, 6 or 8 inches. Subsoil, hard and compact. 
Previous Treatment and Yield. Never received much manure previous to 
1875. In grass iu 1 87. "i-? 7, crop about one ton. Fertilizers how applied. 
Scattered in and around the hills before dropping the corn. Tillage. Hoed 
twice, and corn thinned to four stalks in hill at second hoeing. A small part of 
Nos. 10 and 11 were replanted, and corn did not get so large a growth in those 
plots. Other Remarks. After drying one month the ears showed a shrinkage 
of about 5 percent, in weight. 70 pounds of ears as harvested vieldod. after 
drying one month, 55j lbs. of shelled corn. One bushel dry shelled corn weighed 
60,%, lbs. Plots. Size, ^\ acre. Hows, 3^ ft. apart. Kind of corn, white cap 
corn. Planted, May lGih-20th. Harvested, Sept. 30th-0ct. 10th. 



123 

C. Chester Sage, Middletown, Conn. Soil. — Situation, upland, sloping 
to the east. Kind, loam, some cobble stones. Texture, loose, not drained, com- 
pact after rains. Depth of surface soil, about 6 inches. Subsoil, yellow, with 
cobblestones, hard in dry weather. Other remarks, the land " has been faithfully 
neglected." Previous Treatment and Yield. No manure put on for three 
years previous to 187.5. No manure in 187.5-7, crop 1|, 1 and | tons of hay per 
acre. Weathbr.— April, rain, 5th, 10th, 11 th, 21st, 2.3d, 2.5th, 28th, 29th. Mai/, 
rain, 5th, 9t!i, 20th, 21st, 25th, .30th, 31st. June, rain, 3d, lOth, 11th, 12th, 13th, 
17th, 18th, 22d, 24th, 27th. July, rain, 4th, 9th, 10th, 12th, 21st, 27th, 30th. 
August, rain, 1st, 2d, 4th, 6th, 9th, 16th, 20th, 21st, 25th. Fertilizers, how 
APPLIED. Broadcast and cultivated in. Tillage. Cultivated both ways twice 
and hoed. Other Remarks. The birds pulled the corn badly, and although it 
was replanted there were some missing hills. Many hills in each plat had a less 
number of stalks than was intended. The number of hllis in each plot contain- 
ing one or more stalks was counted, and the yield per acre estimated as if the 
missing hills had yielded corn equal to those hills that grew. Plots. 454 ft. X 75- 
ft. = 12y'W sq. rods. (Fertilizers applied at rate of one-tenth acre for each bag.) 
Rows, 3| ft. apart. Hills, 3| ft apart. Planted, May 29th. Harvested, Oct. 25th 
and 26th. Pounds allowed for a bushel of produce, 70 of good ears, 140 of poor 
ears. 



X. Some Remarks about Farm. Experiments with 

Fertilizers. 

The experiments herewith reported evidently meet a de- 
mand. They were made last season from Canada to Florida,' 
from Maine to Wisconsin. Men who commenced the year 
before with trials on a half a dozen plots or more, worked last 
year on twenty, thirty, and in one case on forty. Agricultu- 
ral schools, societies, and progressive farmers are joining 
enthusiastically in the work, and the interest is rapidly 
increasing. Of course, these particular ones represent only 
a small fraction of the work of the kind that is going on. 
But the straws tell the way the wind is blowing. The same 
tendency is manifest in Europe ; the English, French, and 
German journals are full of accounts of such work done by 
experiment stations, schools, societies, and individuals. This 
all shows that farmers are waking up, that the spirit of 
inquiry is abroad in the land. It seems to me one of the 
most encouraging signs of the times for our agriculture. 

The force of circumstances which has brought me, contrary 
to my sense of lack of fitness, into prominent connection with 



124 

llie experiments referred to, is tlie octrasion of tlic following 
remarks, which 1 trust may not seem wholly out of place. 



I think we should distinguish between 

Two Classes ok Expkriments. 

First: Special; so-called " practical " tield trials to find the defi- 
ciencies of a given soil, or the effects of given fertilizers. The 
results of such experiments apply only to the circumstances in 
whicli they are made. What does best on A's land may be worth 
very little on B's. If, however, the trials are made on a common 
plan in a number of places, information of general value may be 
gained. 

Second: General; systematic experiments for obtaining knowl- 
edge of general principles. 

The experiments hei'ewith reported would all come under the 
first class, except the "Special Corn Experiments, A, B, and C," 
which belong to the second. 

I. Experiments for Testing Soils. 

The following statements seem to me justifiable : 

1. The idea is sound in principle. Men universally recognized 
as authorities in agricultural science the world over, unanimously 
urge such experiments, and keep doing so year after year. The 
two years' results above reported prove, as well as such brief 
experience can, that they are right. 

2. The experiments are instructive. The , makers can leani in 
this way, as in no other, many things they need to know about 
their soils, their crops, and their manures. What is more, the 
work awakens the interest of farmers in science and helps to get 
them out of the ruts they are prone to run in. 

3. The experiments do bring information that is needed. Not 
always just what the maker expects or wants, of course. Tests for 
one season, on a single crop, in unfavorable weather, on uneven land, 
in a soil that has a store of available plant-food on hand, or on land 
so wet or so dry, so warm or so cold, so loose or so compact that it 
cannot bring good crops anyhow, may easily fail to tell what the 
soil or crop most needs. But the results, even then, if faithfully 
observed and reported, will be useful. 



125 

4. Often the most valuable lesson possible is that what a soil 
wants to increase its fertility is not plant-food, but amendments. 
Improvement in the texture, or a good water-supply, constant, not 
too little nor too much, is frequently the first thing to be sought. 
Draining and tillage are often more important than manure. 
Sometimes a good dose of lime will do more for a soil than 
chemicals or dung that would cost twenty times as much. 

5. The results of the experiments are to be taken in connection 
with the facts of experience and what the maker's own knowledge, 
observation, and good sense say of the character and wants of his 
soils and crops. 

6. And finally, cooperative work, experiments made on a 
common plan, under widely varying conditions, and faithfully 
reported, brings results of the greatest value. Last season's corn 
experiments gave proof of this and promise of still more useful 
information in the future. 

The greatest difficulty I have met is to get people to understand 
what the experiments are for and how to make and interpret them. 
I find it necessary to repeat over and over again that if the soil is 
uneven the results must be unreliable ; that the way to test whether 
it is uniform or not is by duplicating the unmanured or manured 
plots; that there is no use trying in this way to find the wants of a 
soil that has a store of plant-food accumulated from its own 
resources or from previous manuring; that different crops have 
different feeding capacities and needs, consequently different stories 
to tell ; that to get complete results the trials must be carried 
through a series of years and crops, through a course of rotation, 
for instance ; and finally, that if the experiments do not tell every- 
thing that needs to be known, or the increase of crops on some of 
the plots fails to pay the expense, this does not prove that all 
experimenting or all science is a humbug. 



In short, the truth of the matter seems to me to be about this. 
The experiments are beyond the capacity of a great many farmers, 
not because of any great difficulty, but because the men are not 
used to such things, and have so httle interest in them that they 
are unwilling to take the trouble to make trials, and do not know 
how to interpret the results. Some try, and get discouraged or 
disgusted ; others work with enthusiasm, wisdom, and success. 



12(1 

As Prof. Jolinsun says: " Tlie true use of such expcrirnonts is to 
find wliat our soil can naturally furnish, and what we must s\ipply 
as fertilizers. For this purpose the results of such experiments 
nmst be taken in combination with the facts as to the export from 
the soil, and if we have a fair record of the crops taken oJf, and 
manures put on a field for five or ten years, we can, by help of 
tables of the composition of crops and manures, estimate pretty 
nearly what ha« been the removal and what the accession of potash, 
phosphoric acid, lime, etc.. to the field during that time, and can 
calculate with great probability what is to-day the kind, as well as 
the amount, of deficiency or surplus in the crop-feeding materials 
of the field. This book-keeping with the soils, ci-ops, and fertili- 
zers, is as essential for profitable farming in New England, as it is 
for successful merchandizing or manufacturing." 

Will ordfnaky farmers make these experiments in such ways 
AS to test their soils fairly ? 

I think they can. Whether they will or not is another matter. 
Some will, some will not. But I must say that my faith in both 
their ability and their willingness has been very much strengthened 
by two years' experience. 

Farmers are conservative. They are slow to learn new lessons. 
Among such things as dung, ashes, and plaster, they know their 
way, but they stumble over nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. 
There is only here and there a man who will undertake such 
experiments at all. Of those who do attempt them some will fail. 
But some will succeed and all will be benefited. 

It is hard for the fathers to learn. But there are sons coming 
up. The more we can help them to use their brains in farming, 
the more ready they will be to stay on the farm, and the better 
they will make their farming pay. 

The way to make any good enterprise successful and useful, is 
not to sit still and complain that it won't go, but to take hold and 
make it go; to be content with small results at first, improve 
methods with experience, and trust to the goodness of the cause 
for ultimate success. 

2. Experiments to obtain Knowledge of General Princii'Les. 

I have a few words to say about experiments on more extensive 
plans. 

Among the points about which information is now most neeeded. 



127 

and whicli can come from fi.eld experiments, are the feeding capaci- 
ties of plants, and the action of manures. That the needed in- 
formation can be got, and that there are men who are able and 
ready to help in getting it, I am not alone in believing. 

Dr. Voelcker, chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- 
land, says: 

" Great as has been tlie progress, during the past ten years, with regard 
to the theory and practice of manuring, an extensive field for inquiry is 
still left open to the man of science, as well as to the advanced agricul- 
turist, and much pains-taking labor will have to be expended by both 
before our knowledge of the action of fertilizing matters and our practice 
of manuring become thoroughly satisfactory." — Jour. Roy. Ag. iSoc, 1869, 
p. 74. 

Of the value of farmer's cooperation in the work. Dr. Voelcker 
says again, after nine years' experience: 

' ' Strongly impressed with the conviction that faithfully recorded experi- 
ments, performed by men in whose integrity, powers of obsei'vation, skill, 
and intimate acquaintance with ordinary farm operations, implicit reliance 
can be placed, are well-calculated to extend our knowledge on matters of 
much practical importance to the agriculturist, I have for years past 
endeavoured to engage the cooperation of my agricultural friends in an 
enterprise which I took hold of nine years ago, and in which I have since 
taken a lively interest. . . . 

"Happily the encouragement which my friends have hitherto given me 
in this work induces me confidently to expect a continuation and exten- 
sion of their support in future years." — Jour. Roy. Ay. Soc, 1871, p. 305. 

The fact is that Agricultural Science has advanced to a point 
where it needs the help of practical men to promote its most use- 
ful progress. The man of practice and the man of science, the 
chemist and the farmer, can work advantageously together m 
many ways, and this is one. 

Suggestions for Systematic Experiments. 
A great deal of good, earnest, costly, work is lost in field experi- 
ments, because of imperfections in their objects, plans, and execu- 
tion. I venture to suggest some points which seem to me important 
in field experiments with fertilizers whose object is to obtain accu- 
rate information, of general value. 

The Plans. 

1. The experiment should have a definite object. The questions 
should be narrow and specific. 

2. It should be conceived in a philosophical spirit, theoretical, if 
you will. The most theoretical experiments in the ordinary sense 
iDring results of the most practical use. Not A's phosphate nor 



128 

B's corn manure, but standard materials furnishing nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid, lime, etc., in definite amounts and combinations 
are the materials to use. 

3. It should be arranged to continue through a series of years. 

What ought to be known in advance. 

4. As much as possible ought to be known of the soil, includ- 
ing subsoil, its chemical and physical characters, kind, color, 
texture, water capacity and supply; its past history, tillage, manur- 
ing, and crops; what crops it is fit for, and how much it can 
produce with ordinai'y manures; and finally, or rather, first of all, 
that it is uniform. This last ought to be tested by one year's trial 
in advance.* 

The Soil, Crop, and Manures. 

5. The soil ought to be uniform, level, in good physical condi- 
tion, and fitted to respond to the action of manures. 

8. The crops should be fitted to soil and climate. It is poor 
policy to experiment with corn on wet, heavy land, or where the 
climate is too cool to ripen it. 

7. Where the action of particular kinds of fertilizing materials 
is to be tested, they should be applied where they will be able to 
show decided effects. There is little use, for instance, in trying 
to compare the effect of different amounts or kinds of potash salts 
in soils or for crops where potash is abundant and ineffective. 

How to Conduct the Experiments. 

8. The plots should be accurately measured and staked out, and 
the fertilizers carefully applied. Concentrated fertilizers should 
be mixed with earth. Those that want time for diffusion, like 
potash salts, are often best applied in the preceding fall; while 
materials that leach quickly away, like nitrate of soda, should not 
be put on until planting time. 

9. The weather and progress of the crop during the season 
should be carefully noted. 



* Observations on this point during the past four seasons have convinced me 
that this is very important. I have sometimes found small plots of 1 to 4 square 
rods on apparently uniform land to vary nearly one-third, and often one-sixth, in 
their produce under like treatment. On this account I have, for some years past, 
recommended my friends who were starting experiments of importance, to treat 
the whole field alike the first year, and test the uniformity of the plots by thi 
produce. Long, narrow plots are generally the most reliable. See discussions 
of this point in report of Conn. Board of Agriculture, 1877, 385. 



129 

10. ('areful weighings and measurements of tlie produce should 
be made, with notes of times and methods. The amounts of 
grain and stalks or straw, and of good and poor produce ought 
also to be carefully stated. 

The Man. 

11. The experimenter must be a man of great enthusiasm, pa- 
tience, carefulness, and accuracy. 

The fact is, we need first to learn how to do the work. Very 
few people have any idea how much of a thing it is to make a 
thoroughly good experiment. This sort of doctrine is discourag- 
ing, I know, but it is true; and there are plenty of men who have 
the wisdom to appreciate and the energy to follow it. The full 
understanding of it would have saved a vast deal of unproductive 
labor in the past, and it is time it was insisted upon. 

Perhaps' I can give a better idea of my meaning by a case in 
point. Mr. Bartholomew, the maker of Experiments B, Bl, and 
B2, has found that a certain field in his farm which, with no ma- 
nure, brings scarcely enough of a crop to pay the harvesting, has, 
during two seasons, given uniformly fair crops of corn with super- 
phosphate, and pays little attention to potash or nitrogen. He has 
worked around two sides of the field. There is an area of several 
acres that has been in grass, and is to be turned up this spring. 
He proposes to plant this all to corn with superphosphate, divide 
it into small plots, and weigh the crops on each. This will tell 
whether there are any uneven places to be avoided in the experi- 
ment. He can test this, on the whole, better with the superphos- 
phate than with no manure, and unless the land is different from 
that which has been tested and found very uniform, or the season 
proves bad, he may expect a good paying crop instead of losing the 
use of the land one year. The next season he proposes to lay out 
plots and commence an experiment to last through a series of 
years. In doing this he is making his experiments a valuable 
centribution to knowledge, and himself a public benefactor. He 
ought not, and 1 expect will not, be allowed to bear all the expense 
himself. 

Mr. Sage has likewise got fairly well acquainted with his land, 
and proposes to continue his experimenting, and will, I hope, be 
helped in so doing. 

I trust it will appear that this chapter has not been written with- 
out a purpose. I believe there are many others who are able and 
will be more than glad to do what these gentlemen are doing. 
16 



XI. Fodder Materials and the Feeding of Stock. 

Four years ago, in a pai)er on the licsulis nf Ln/e Earniuan Ex- 
periments on the Feeding of Catlh, presented at a meeting of the 
Connecticut Board of Agriculture,* was given an outline of the 
methods and results of the very remarkable investigations which 
had for some fifteen years formed a prominent part of the work 
of the European, and, particularly, the German Experiment 
Stations, had just begun to be formulated into general prin- 
ciples, and were, in combination with the concordant results of 
enlightened practice, leading to a revolution in the accepted 
theories, or rather to an evolution of the true theory, and to most 
fortunate changes in the practice of feeding stock. To the article 
were appended some tables showing the composition of numerous 
fodder materials, and a number of feeding rations calculated to 
secure the most economical employment of the food. Though 
impressed with a belief in the correctness of the principles, which 
rested not merely upon the accuracy and extent of the experiment 
ing, but also upnu the testimony of the men who had proved them 
in their practice, 1 was, nevertheless, not a little interested to see 
how they would be accepted on this side of the Atlantic, by an 
agricultural public whom st(3rn necessity had not yet driven to the 
careful study and close economizing of the products and productive 
forces of their farming. The subject has since been discussed by 
known chemists and physiologists, who have ably elucidated the well 
principles, and shown how American farmers may apply tliem 
witli profit; and by others not versed in chemistry and physiology 
who evince less confiilence in the results of the experiments than 
in conflicting theories of their own. 

The wide-spread interest in the matter, as shown by scores of 
letters from all pai'ts of the country; the success many have had 
in putting the principles in practice; the advance in the science; 
the numerous analyses of American feeding stuffs, until of late 
almost entirely lacking; and finally the propriety of further explan- 
ation of the values and proper use of the feeding stuffs, of which 
analyses were given in the first part of the report, lead me to recur 
to it again. 

The most extended experiments as yet undertaken in ihis coun- 

* lieport of Connecticut Board of Agriculture, 1874, p. 131. The same topic 
was presented in somewhat less detail a \ear previous!)', before the Maine Board 
of Aj^rirulture ; nnd later, in a series of articles in Xhc Americmi Ai/riruUiirisf. 
Home repetitioii.s of statements in the paj)ers mentioned are hardJv to l»e avoided 
here. 



131 

try to test the correctness of the views referred to, so far as 
my knowledge goes, are those made by Mr. J. W. Sanborn, super- 
intendent of the New Hampshire Agricultural College farm. The 
results of accurately conducted trials during the past three years 
confirm very emphatically the conclusions from the German ex- 
periments. A number of other prominent farmers in various 
parts of the country have likewise conducted feeding trials in the 
same line, whose results I should gladly adduce, if the lack of 
space did not forbid. The limits of the present article, however, 
allow only such brief statements as are needed to show how the 
analyses of feeding-stuffs on pages 29-39 are to be interpreted 
or applied in practice. In the appendix I have tried to explain 
concisely the meaning of the chemical terms used for the food 
ingredients, the functions of the latter in the nutrition of the 
animal, and have added tables giving composition of feeding-stuffs, 
feeding-standards, and fodder-rations. 



There are two very important matters connected v/ith the eco- 
nomical feeding of stock which the teachings of modern science 
explain, but which too few farmers understand. 

First. How to adapt the food most economically to the wants 
of the animal and the purpose for which it is fed. 

Second. How to feed so as to make the richest manure. 

How IS Food Used in the Animal Body? 

The advanced agriculture of the present day looks upon the 
farm, or better, the stable, as a kind of manufacturing establish- 
ment. Domestic animals are the machines, food in the form of 
grass, roots, grain, hay, oil cake, etc., are the raw materials, and 
meat, milk, wool, labor, and progeny the products. 

In cattle feeding, then, it becomes an important question. How 
to get tlie largest amount of product from the least amount^ and the least 
expensive raw materials. 

We feed hay, grain, and roots to our stock that they may keep 
warm, grow, fatten, and return meat, milk, and work. Putting it 
another way, we supply them with albuminoids, carbohydrates, 
and fats, to make flesh and fat, bone and sinew, milk, and progeny, 
and to be consumed in generating heat and muscular strength.* 

* See explanations of chemical terms, etc., in Appendix. 



182 

The aiiiinMl niachmc is a peculiar one. It is maile of food. 
Lii<e other iiiacliiiu's, it requires fuui to run it, and it is continu- 
ally weai'iiij^ out. But it consuinos its own materials for fuel, 
uses food for bcjth fuel and repairs, and keeps running, wearing 
out, and warming and repairing itself by use of food all the while, 
whether it does any other work or not. 

FOOD FOR MAINTENANCE. 

Suppose that I have in my stable a cow standing idle and giving 
no milk. She is nevertheless doing some work. Blood is coursing 
thi'ough her veins, the operations of digestion and assimilation are 
going on, muscular activity in her body is unceasing. Heat is 
needed to keep her body warm. To make up the loss of tissue and 
supply heat and force, food is required. The food which she must 
have to hold her own to keep her in good store condition, we will 
call maintenance fodder. The maintenance fodder must contain 
albuminoids and carbohydrates. But the cheaper carbohydrates 
will do most of the work, and but little of the costly albuminoids 
will be needed. Poor hay, cornstalks, and straw may make the 
bulk of her food. 

FOOD FOR PRODUCTION. 

But suppose that I demand of my cow production^ say in the form 
of milk. For this she must have more and richer food. To make 
milk she needs not only a larger quantity, but also different quality 
of food from that which sufficed for maintenance alone. What she 
wants in addition to make the milk is mainly albuminoids and fats. 

If, instead of milking my cow, I wish to fat her for the butcher, 
I shall still require production, but of another sort, that of fat and 
flesh. And if, instead of a cow, I have an ox that is to be kept at 
work, yet another kind of production is required, that of muscular 
force. And I need not say that for these different kinds of pro- 
duction, different kinds and amounts of fodder are requisite. 

The Fundamental Principle in Economical Feeding. 

The right feeding of stock, then, is not merely a matter of so 
much hay and grain and roots, but rather of so much water, starcli, 
sugar, gluten, etc., of which they are composed. To use fodder 
economically, we must so mix and deal it out that the ration shall 
contain just the amounts of the various ingredients needed for 
maintenance, and for the particular form of production tluit is 
required. 

To this matter squarely before us we must consider, 



133 

1st. What is the chemical composition of our fodder materi- 
als ? How many pounds of albuminoids, sugar, starch, fat, water, 
and other ingredients are contained in a hundred pounds of hay, 
clover, potatoes, meal, etc.? 

2d. Of these various ingredients of food, what proportion of 
each is digestible and consequently nutritious ? 

3d. What part does each of these food ingredients play in the 
animal economy? Which are the '-flesh-formers," i. e., make the 
muscle ; what ones are transferred into the fat (butter) and casein 
(curd) of the milk ; from what ones are the heat and force pro- 
duced ? 

4th. How much of each do different animals, as oxen and 
cows, need for maintenance of life and the production of meat, 
milk, etc. ? And finally, how must different kinds of fodder be 
mixed and fed so that the digestible material shall be most fully 
digested and utilized, and the least quantity wasted ? 

The chemical composition of the food materials is explained in 
connection with the tables at the end of this report. 

What we have to do with mostly in feeding, are the ingredients 
of the organic substance — the combustible parts of the foods. The 
main points to be borne in mind, are, 

1. There are two principal classes of food ingredients, the albu- 
minoids which contain nitrogen, and the carbohydrates and fats 
which have none. Gluten of wheat, lean meat or muscle, and 
casein (curd) of milk are albuminoids. Sugar and starch are 
carbohydrates. Oil of cotton seed or corn, tallow, lard, and butter 
are fats. 

2. All ordinary feeding stuffs contain the same list 'of ingredi- 
ents. The main difference is in the proportions. Pasture grass 
and early cut hay contain nothing that is not found in late cut hay, 
cornstalks and straw. The young hay is better than the old hay, 
the pasture grass is better than cornstalks, becase it has more albu- 
minoids and fats, and because it is more digestible. Clover, bran, 
cotton seed, linseed, and palm-nut meal have a great deal of albu- 
minoids and fats. They are rich where straw, bog hay, and corn- 
stalks are poor. The mixing the rich and poor foods together gives 
good rations at small cost. 

DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS. 

When a cow eats hay, part is digested and goes to supply the 
wants of her body. The rest, the undigested part, passes off in 



1:54 

the solid excrement, and is useful only for manure. If l)f)th the 
liay and the excrement are analyzed, the difffjrence will be the 
amoimt digested. This is, in sul^stance, the method that is actually 
pursued in the feeding experiments in th(5 German Experiment 
Stations. 

I have l)cfore me a book by Wolff, entitled Die Rrnnhrung der 
Laiidwirthschaftlichen Nutzihierc (Nutrition of Animals useful in 
Agriculture), in which are gathered together the results of the 
experiments upon this subject during the fifteen years previous to 
187G. It is an octavo volume of 552 pages. It gives the general 
plans and outlines, the results of probably over 1,500 feeding 
experiments, each one of which was carried out with a thorough- 
ness never equaled by any feeding experiment on this side of the 
Atlantic ocean. Indeed, the amount of tliought, labor, and ex- 
pense devoted to these investigations, is a thing of which few 
farmers on this side of the Atlantic have any conception. Our 
foreign brethren have learned how to investigate, have found that 
the labor of four or five men for as many months is often neces- 
sary for a single experiment; that scores of such experiments may 
only lead to the discovery of the ways to make better ones; that 
the most abstract investigations bring the most practical results; 
that general principles come from years and years of the work of 
many men, but that these principles are worth many times their 
cost. 

One hundred and ninety-four pages of the book referred to are 
given to a summary of the results of experiments on digestion 
alone. 

DIGESTIBILITY OF HAYS. 

For instance, in an experiment at the station in Weende, an ox 

consumed daily IC.9 lbs. of meadow hay, or what is called here 

'* English grasses : " 

Conijisting of 
Organic Other 

There wa? contained in dry Albu- Crude Carbohy- 

siibsumce. niinoida. fiber. dratee. 

1G.9 pounds meadow hay, 14.27 lbs. 2.12 lbs. 3.80 lbs. 6.48 lbs. 
Excrement from same, 6.33 " .77 " 1.63 " 2.06 " 

There was, then, digested, 7.94 " 1.35 " 2.17 " 4.42 " 

These trials have been made with horses, oxen, cows, sheep, 
goats, and swine. Hays, straws, grain, nearly all the common food 
materials, have been tested alone and in combination. One of the 
tables in the book referred to, gives results of eighty-four experi- 



135 

ments on the digestibility of different sorts of hay ; another has results 
of forty experuiients with green fodder, and so on. In general, out 
of 100 lbs. of dry substance in hays, from 40 to 80 lbs. have been 
found to be digested. The proportions vary in individual cases 
very widely; but it is possible to divide the articles in general 
groups whose members agree pretty well together. 

As a general rule, the richer the hay in albuminoids the more 
digestible it is. Thirty different specimens of meadow hay, 
"English grasses", (including nine of aftermath) and three of 
grass, fed to oxen, cows, sheep, and goats, in eighty-four different 
experiments, gave results which may be grouped and summaiized 
as below : 

The 33 sorts may be divided into two classes. Those of the first 
class, 17 in number, all contained less, and those of the second 
class, 16 in numbex', more than 11.5 per cent, of albuminoids, in the 
dry substance. The composition may be expressed as below : 





Albumi- 
noids. 


Crude 
fiber. 


Other carbo- 
hydrates. 


Fats. 


Ash. 


Poorer J Average of 17 sorts, 
ports, 'i Range of variation, 


9.96 
- 7.1-11.2 


.30.03 
24.1-34.8 


49.41 
45.3-54.7 


3.05 
2.2-4.4 


4.2-9.4 


Richer ( Average of 16 sorts, 
sorts. ( Range of variation. 


14.50 
- 11.8-25.1 


26.76 
17.4-37.0 


46.23 
38.1-52.8 


3.61 
1.6-5.9 


8.88 
6.8-12.9 



That is to say, in the dry substance of the poorer hays — the 
water is left out of account in all these calculations — the albumi- 
noids varied from 7.1 to 11.2 per cent., and averaged 9.96 per 
cent. The albuminoids in the richer hays and grass ranged from 
11.8 to 25.1 per cent, averaging 14.5 per cent. 

CO-EFFICIENTS OF DIGESTIBILITY. 

The ingredients were digested in proportions, as herewith : 



Albumi- 
noids. 


Crude Other carbo- 
flber. hydrates. 


Fats. 


Organic 
Substance. 


A. Poorer sorts. Average, 56.0 


56.8 62.8 


47.8 


59.1 


B. Better sorts. " - 63.9 


64.4 67.1 


48.0 


66.6 


B. More than A. " - 7.9 


7.6 4.7 


0.2 


7.5 


.. Poorer sorts. Variation, 42 to 63 


46 to 71 49 to 71 


10 to 65 


46 to 67 


;. Better sorts. " 54 to 79 


54 to 75 61-84 


31 to 68 


60 to 78 



Out of every 100 parts of albuminoids in the poorer hays, from 
42 to 63 parts, or on the average 56 parts were digested, while the 
digestion of albuminoids in the better hays ranged from 54 to 79, 
and averaged 63.9 parts in 100. These percentages the German 
experimenters call the coefficients of digestibility. 



180 

'I'lu; all»umiiiui(iH of tho hotter hays wore more valuahh! in two 
ways, tlioy were more in quantity, and were more digestible. 
The same was true of all the other ingredients. It should be 
noted that some of the bettor samples were very rich. They 
were from young grass, grown, doubtless, on rich land. Our 
ordinary hays would generally range along with the poorer sorts 
above, though some of ours would come below the poorest. 

This matter is worth examining farther. It has been thought 
that the digestibility of such foods was regulated mainly by the 
amount of woody fiber. But later experimenting has shown, not 
only that the fiber is digestible, but also that the albuminoids are 
the more important factor of the digestibility. While, as is well 
known, the crude fiber increases as the albuminoids diminish, and 
vice versa, its digestibility rises and falls with the amount of albu- 
minoids. C'areful comparisons of the results of the experiments 
thus far made indicates, on the whole, that the digesti bility is more 
affected by the albuminoids than by the fiber. This is not the 
place for a full discussion of this question. I give, however, some 
figures which illustrate the main results. The materials are 
divided into four classes, with composition and digestibility, as 
below : 

AvERAOK Composition. 



No. of Albmni- Crude Other carbo- 

KiNi). sorts. noids. fiber. . liydratus. Fati*. Afh. 

1. Good pasture irrass, - 2 20.7 17.7 4.5.4 5.6 10.6 

2. Very good nic.idow hay, 16 14.5 26.8 46.2 3.6 8.9 

3. Average meadow hay, 17 10.0 30.0 49.4 3.1 8.2 

4. Inferior hay, - - 8 9.4 33.0 48.1 2.7 6.9 

The proportions digested or "co-efficients of digestibility," were 
the following : 

Albumi- Crude Otlifer carbo- Organic 

noids. tibfir. hydrates. Fats. Substance. 

1. Good pasture grass, - 76 73 79 66 77 

2. Very good meadow hay, - 64 64 67 48 67 

3. Average meadow hay, - 56 57 63 48 59 

4. Inferior hay, - - - 52 57 61 49 56 

Out of 100 lbs. of albuminoids in the pasture grass, 76 lbs. were 
digested, while from 100 lbs. of inferior hay, the animals digested 
only 52 lbs. 



137 



COMPOSITION AND DIGESTIBILITY OF OLOVER. 

A similar gradation of digestibility appears in different sorts of 
clover grass, and hay. The more albuminoids and the less woody 
fiber the food contains, the larger proportion of each one of its 
constituents will be digestible. 

No. of Albumiu- Crude Other carbo- 

sorts. oids. fiber. hydrates. Fat!=. Aph. 

1. Pasture clover, - - - - l 37.1 16.7 42.9 5.1 9.0 

2. Extra clover hay (green clover), 6 18.3 26.6 42.8 3.8 8.4 

3. Very good clover hay, - - 15 16.2 28.7 44.4 3.5 7.2 

4. Ordinary clover hay, - - - 6 14.3 30.5 46.3 2.9 6.3 

The average co-efficients of digestibility were: 

Albumin- Crude Other t. , Orpanic 
Olds, fibre, Car'Iiyt'a. ^ ^' substance . 

1. Pasture clover, 78 67 78 64 76 

2. Extra clover hay, (green clover), - 70 53 7.3 64 60 

3. Very good clover hay, - - - 62 46 71 60 62 

4. Ordinary clover h;iy, - - - .53 49 69 56 59 

Further details like the above would be out of place here. The 
results of investigations thus far made, are embodied in the tables 
at the end of this article. 



Coarse Foods and Concentrated Foods. 

The German experimenters have taught us the importance of 
distinguishing clearly between two classes of feeding stuffs. 

1st. Coarse foods, hay, straw, cornstalks, chaff, etc. 

2d. Concentrated foods, grain, meal, bran, oil-cake, potatoes, 
roots, etc. 

The concentrated foods are more digestible, and the coarse foods 
less so. The amount digested depends in general upon three things : 
the animal, the character of the materials, and the way they are 
fed. 

In general, from 45 to 75 per cent, of the dry substance of crude 
foods, and from 60 to 98 per cent, of that of concentrated foods, is 
digested by ordinary domestic animals. 

The Digestive Capacities of Different Animals. 

But few experiments have been made to test this precise ques- 
tion, by feeding different animals of different kinds with the same 
food, at the same time. General averages of experiments made, 
however, give a pretty decisive answer. 
17 



138 

1. Contrary to the cominoii holiel', diHoruut classes of nuiiinants 
seem to digest the crude fodder in about the same proportions 
token they are properly fed. That is to say, from a liundrod pounds 
of a given food, as hay, clover, or straw, different animals as 
oxen, cows, sheep, and goats digest nearly the same number of 
pounds of al))uminoids, carl )ohyd rates, crude fiber, etc. The fol- 
lowing results of actual trials, with meadow hay and clover, illus- 
trate this. 

1. Meadow Hay. 



NlTMnBR or COIKPICIENTK Olf DMilt«TIHII.ITV OP 



,., . , . . , ExpiTi- ... ,. Kind" AlbamiD' Crude Oilier Carlio- j..,. 

Kind, of An.nialf. ,„^'„t, Anin. 1.. ^^p^.j „.j^ g,„„ hydraUi. '^■••• 

Oxen and COWS, 8 5 3 61.0 61.9 65.5 49.7 

Sheep, - - 23 15 8 57.8 59.4 63.1 40.3 

Goats, - - 6 2 2 56.5 582 51.2 44.7 

Totals and avcrnpcs, 37 22 13 58.3 59.8 63.3 43 4 

2. Green Clover and Clover Hay. 

Oxen, . . 17 9 7 60.7 47.1 70 60.1 

Sheep, - - 23 10 8 63.9 49.8 71.3 63.2 

Totals and averages, 40 19 15 62.5 48.7 70.7 62.0 

It appears from the above that the oxen digested more from 
meadow hay, and less from clover, than the sheep. Comparison 
of the details however, shows that the slight differences were acci- 
dental or due to differences in the quahty of the foods. 

2. Horses seem from the few experiments thus far made, to 
digest about the same proportions from concentrated foods, and 
somewhat less from coarse foods than ruminants. This was found 
to be the case in late experiments at Hohenheim. 

3. Different bieeds of animals of the same kind seem to 
agree very closely, on the average, in their digestive capacities. 

4. Young, rapidly growing animals appear to digest easily di- 
gestible foods (including good hay), as well as the full grown 
animals. 

5. There is often considerable difference in the digestive ca- 
pacities of different animals of the same breed. 

It must be borne in mind, liowever, that different animals may 
vary greatly in their utilization of a given food, that is, in the 
amount of production therefrom, even though they may digest the 
same amounts. For instance, it is a familiar fact that cows of 
different breeds, or different individuals of the same breed, differ 



139 

widely in the amount and the quality of milk they yield from the 
same fodder. This may be due, not so much to the difference in 
the quantity of the fodder they digest, as to the difference in their 
utilizing of the digested material. 

WILL ANIMALS DIGEST AS LARGE A PERCENTAGE OF A LARGE RA- 
TION AS OF A SMALL ONE ? 

So far as this question has been tested, the answer is affirmative. 
That is to say, healthy animals, under normal conditions, digest 
no larger proportion of a scanty ration than of one as large as 
they can healthily consume. 

DIGESTIBILITY OF CROPS CUT AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF GROWTH. 

In general, the younger the plant, the more digestible it is. 
Young grass and clover are very digestible. They have also 
larger percentages of albuminoids. As they grow older the per- 
centages of the woody fibre increase, while the albuminoids and 
the digestibility decrease. 

DIGESTIBILITY OF HAY AS COMPARED WITH GRASS. 

A large number of comparative experiments agree essentially 
in showing that grass, clover, etc., do not become less digestible 
by drying. At the same time, hay, as gathered and used, is gen- 
erally less digestible than the green fodder. This is particularly 
true of leafy plants such as clover and lucern. The reason is, that in 
curing and housing, more or less of the leaves and fine steins, the 
most easily digested parts, are dropped off and lost, so that the 
material that remains is less digestible than it would be if the 
whole were saved. 

THE EFFECT OF THE METHOD OF GATHERING AND CURING, ETC., ON 

DIGESTIBILITY 

Is very great. The falling off of leaves and fine stems, leaching by 
rain and fermentation, all result not only in absolute loss of material, 
but also in decreased digestibility of what remains, because it is 
the most digestible parts that are lost. 

EFFECT OF BOILING, STEAMING, AND FERMENTING FODDER. 

But few experiments have been made to test the effect of these 
modes of preparing fodder on its nutritive value. 



110 

Contrary \o what mif^lit ha expc(^t(!tl, the digestibility does not 
appear to be increased by these means; still, the food is made more 
palatable, and further, in cold weather warm food and drink are 
excellent. The nutritive ellect may, therefore, be increased by 
boiling and steaming. But the experiments on this question are^ 
as yet, few. It is one of the practical problems upon which there 
is great need of careful investigation. One thing seems apparent. 
The palatabiliiy of a food has a great deal to do with the good that 
an animal will get from it. 

CHANGES OF HAY IN KEEPING. 

The few experiments bearing upon this point indicate that hay 
deteriorates, both in composition and digestibility; on keeping 
samples of different kinds, were found to 16se about 0.5 ^ albu- 
minoids between October and March, while the coefficients of 
digestibility decreased slightly also; the loss averaged between 
five and ten per cent, of the whole value. The subject needs 
further investigation befoi-e certain results can be reached. 

Digestion op Mixed Rations. Avoiding Waste. Ratio of Albu- 
minoids TO Carbohydrates. 

The statements above, concerning the proportions of crude foods 
as hay, clover, straw, green fodder, etc., that animals digest, apply 
only to cases where they are fed either alone or with proper ad- 
mixtures of other foods. Very often, however, the digestible 
parts of the food are not all digested. It is easy, for instance, to 
mix potatoes or turnips with hay or clover in such proportions 
that the animals will digest much less of the hay than they would 
if the diflerent foods were used in proper amounts. There are 
likewise some kinds of fodder, as straw, chaff, and cornstalks, of 
which many farmers make but Uttle account, and yet which con- 
tain a great deal of valuable nutritive matter. In ordinary prac- 
tice, however, much of this is wasted, when, if mingled with 
other foods, it might be saved. 

In some of the early digestion experiments in 1860-1, it was 
noticed that oxen did not digest hay and straw as completely when 
starch was added as they did without it. When the experiments 
were repeated the same results were observed. This was an im- 
portant matter. The chemists in several experiment stations went 
to work to find out the facts of the case, and the result is that we 
have now scores of experiments bearing upon the subject. 



141 

The general plan of the experiments is this : The animal, a cow, 
for instance, is fed for a certain time with hay or clover alone, and 
the proportion of the albuminoids, carbohydrates, etc., which she 
digests from the hay are determined by weighings and analyses of 
food and excrement. Then, for some time, an easily digestible 
albuminoid substance, as gluten, is added to the ration, and the 
effect on the digestion of the hay is noted. Or, instead of the nitro- 
genous material alone, food materials rich in nitrogen, as oil-cake, 
bean-meal, or bran are used, and their effect likewise determined. 
In other experiments, carbohydrates, as sugar, or starch, or easily 
digestible foods containing much of these and little nitrogen, as 
potatoes, are mixed with the hay or clover, and thus their influence 
on the digestion is determined. 

The summary of the results of these experiments up to 1875 fills 
about fifty pages of the book by Wolff I have referred to. In gen- 
eral, whether all the digestible and nutritious matter of a ration 
is actually digested or not depends largely upon the relative 
amounts of nitrogenous materials it contains. 

To be specific : 

1. Adding easily digestible albuminoid substances, like gluten, 
to coarse foods, hay, straw, etc., does not decrease digestion of latter. 

2. In like matter, when foods rich in albuminoids, like oil-cake, 
bran, etc., are fed with hay, straw, etc., as much of the coarse food 
is digested as when it is fed alone. 

3. When sugar, starch, or other easily digestible carbohydrates 
are fed with coarse foods, the latter are not digested as completely 
as when fed alone. And what seems paradoxical, not the carbo- 
hydrates of coarse foods, but the albuminoids, are first to suffer; 
then, as more carbohydrates are added, the loss comes upon the 
crude fiber, fats, etc. Foods poor in albuminoids suffer most. The 
effect of the starch or sugar may be counteracted by feeding albu- 
minoids with it. 

4. Foods rich in carbohydrates, like potatoes and turnips, like- 
wise prevent digestion of hay and straw. But while these decrease 
the digestion, their effect is counteracted by nitrogenous foods. In 
general, concentrated foods with not over eight pounds of digesti- 
ble carbohydrates to one of digestible albuminoids do not substan- 
tially decrease the digestion of coarse foods. 

For example : If I feed my cow hay, she will digest certain per- 
centages of each of the ingredients. She will generally digest 
larger or smaller proportions of each ingredient in proportion as 
the hay has more or less albuminoids. The same is ti'ue for clover. 



142 

and tliore is every reason to heli(!ve it is so with straw, corn- 
stalks, etc., though these siil)staiices have not btien tested so fully. 
Now I may add a little sugar or starch, or potatoes or beets, to the 
hay, without loss, but as soon as these reach a certain amount, my 
cow will begin to digest less from the hay. She will first leave 
some of the albuminoids of the hay undigested, and then, as she 
consumes more of the carbohydrates, will digest less of the fiber, 
carbohydrates and fats of the hay and of the other food also. But 
if I feed gluten or meat-scrap or In'an or cotton-seed meal, with 
the hay, my cow will keep on digesting as much from the hay as 
she did before. And if I feed these with the potatoes, she will 
hkewise digest the full quota of digestible material in the hay. 

It seems fair to infer, though it is not so fully proven, tliat foods 
poor in nitrogen, such as hay that is cut late, or grown on poor soils 
or on marshy land, straw and cornstalks will suffer more from 
admixture of potatoes and roots than good hay or clover. 

The correctness of these principles was long since settled. The 
hundreds of feeding trials all tell the same story. Tiie question 
the chemists are now, and have for some time been, working at is 
the amount of effect from given amounts and proportions of con- 
centrated foods. In some cases the digestion of the albuminoids 
in hay, clover, etc., has been reduced nearly one-half by sugar, 
starch, potatoes, and roots. 

It is probably safe to assume, as a general rule, that concentrated 
foods containing not over seven or eight pounds of digestible 
albuminoids to one of digestible carbohydrates may be fed with 
coarse foods without detriment to the digestion of the latter. But 
when this " nutritive ratio," as it is called, exceeds 1 : 8, there is gen- 
erally more or less loss. How ordinary concentrated foods stand 
in respect to this proportion of the two classes of digestible materi- 
als appears below : The last column gives the nutritive ratio, t. e., 
the ratio of albuminoids to carbohydrates, as explained in the 
appendix. 

Kinds op Fodder. Dioestibi.e Subst.vnces. 

1(H) lbs. contaiu : Albiiminoidp. Carlioliydrales, Nutritive ratio 

including fats. 

Meat Scrap 50 o 5.0 1 . 0. 1 

Cotton-seed Meal 17.5 28.6 1 : 1.7 

Linseed Cake 24.8 49.8 1: 2.0 

Brewers' Grains 3.9 12.8 1:3.4 

MaltSprouts 19.4 49.2 1:2.5 

Field Beans 23.0 53.5 1 : 2.3 

Pea-Meal 20.9 62.4 1 : 3.0 

Wheat Bran lO.O 56.1 1: 5.6 

Oats 9.0 55.0 i : 6.1 

Indian Com 8.4 75.1 1: 8.6 

Bcet.'< 11 10.3 1:9.3 

Potatoes 2.1 22 3 1:10.6 



143 

Bran, beans, peas, oil-cake, brewers' grains and malt sprouts, 
then, are rich in nitrogen, the ratios being from 1 : l.l to 1 : 5.6. 
Adding these to hay, clover, straw, or green fodder, does not 
decrease the digestion. The effect of grains has not been experi- 
mented upon very thoroughly, except in the case of oats, which do 
not seem to decrease the digestion of hay and clover. Whether 
Indian meal decreases the digestion of hay has not been tested, 
though probably the waste, if any, would be inconsiderable unless 
very large amounts were fed. But potatoes and beets, with average 
nutritive ratios of from 1 : 9 to 1 : 15, do decrease the digestibility 
of hay, clover, straw, etc., very decidedly. Wolff concludes that 
when hay and potatoes are so mixed that the dry substance (organic 
substance-j-ash) of the potatoes is not over one-eighth of the whole 
dry substance in the mixture, the hay is digested as when fed alone. 
But if the dry substance of the potatoes be one-fourth of the whole, 
the digestion of the hay will be five to ten per cent, less, and if it be 
one-half of the whole, the hay digested will be ten to twenty per 
cent, less than before. The decrease of digestion from use of tur- 
nips in like proportions would be only half or three-fourths that 
produced by potatoes. He summarizes results of experiments on 
the effect of potatoes and beets on.digestion of albuminoids of hay 
as follows, the figures referring to dry substance. 

DECREASED DIGESTION OF ALBUMINOIDS IN HAY. 

Concentrated food making ^ |-^ ^ | of whole ration. 

With Potatoes, 7perct. 14pcrct. 2.5perct. 40perct. 

With Beets, 4 " 7 " 12 " 22 " 

That is, when potatoes are fed with hay so as to make the dry 
substance of the potatoes one-sixth of the dry substance of the hay, 
seven parts less of albuminoids in one hundred will be digestion, 
but where the dry substance of the potatoes makes one-half of the 
whole, the digestion of the albuminoids falls off twenty-five per 
cent., or one-fourth. And adding potatoes enough to make their 
dry substance two-thirds of the whole brings down the digestion of 
the albuminoids of the hay two-fifths. 

At this rate, feeding potatoes and hay in equal weights, that is, 
one pound of fresh potatoes to one pound of cured hay, would 
involve a loss of about one-tenth of the digestible albuminoids of 
the hay; but if five pounds of potatoes be fed with one pound of 
hay, one-third of the albuminoids and consequently a very consid- 
erable part of the whole value of the hay will be lost. 



144 



FUNCrnoN.S OK THE B\K)I) INGREDIENTS. 

Wc have now to consider our second question. What use is 
made of the food ingredients after they are digested ? How much 
work has been done on this subject may be inferred from the fact 
that the summary of experiments and results concerning the 
formation of flesh fills ninety-six, and tho.se concerning the forma- 
tion of fat, fifty-six of the octavo pages of Wolff's book referred 
to. While we are not yet certain as to all the details, a good deal 
has been more or less definitely settled. 

What is done with the Food m the Body. 

If wc could watch the processes of nutrition and assimilation 
inside the body of the animal, if we could follow the course of 
the particles of gluten and starch as they are separated from the 
hay and grain in the stomach, taken into the circulation, and finally 
stored away as flesh or fat, or made over into the casein and butter 
of the milk, or consumed in respiration, the solution of these ques- 
tions would be easy. But this cannot be done, and we must employ 
an indirect method of experiment. The plan which the patient 
and skillful German experimenters have devised for learning how 
the animal disposes of the food in its body, consists, practically, in 
determining all that goes into the animal's body and all that comes 
out of it. Then, by applying known principles of chemistry and 
physiology, they infer how each ingredient of the food has been 
used in the body. The whole amount of the food is found by 
accurate weighings and measurements, and its composition deter- 
mined by chemical analysis. Thus, we learn how much of albu- 
minoids, carbohydrates, fats, water, and mineral matters, the 
animal consumes. These undergo various transformations in the 
animal. The part which is not digested passes off in the solid 
form, as dung. The digested portion is used in the growth and 
in the continual rebuilding of the different parts of the body, as 
flesh, fat, bone, and milk, and in respiration. When its work is 
done, the products of its transformation are given off, either in a 
liquid form in the urine, or in the form of gas or vapor in respira- 
tion through the skin, and, more especially, the lungs. The final 
products of the use of the food in the body are, then, the sohd 
exci-ement, the urine, and the expired va])ors and gases. 



145 



EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE HOW FLESH IS FORMED IN THE BODY. 

It is a fact in pliysiology that the nitrogen in the urine comes 
from the transformation of albuminoids (flesh) in the body, and 
that, under normal circumstances, the amount of nitrogen in the 
urine is a measure of the amount of consumption of these sub- 
stances. If, therefore, by comparisons from day to day, we find 
the amount of nitrogen in the urine to be less than that in the 
food digested, we infer that the lacking portion has been retained 
in the body, or, in other words, that the amount of albuminoid 
matters of the food that has been stored away as flesh is greater 
than the amount of flesh consumed, and that the amount of flesh 
in the body is increasing. If, on the other hand, the amount of 
nitrogen in the urine is more than was digested from the food, the 
inference is that the store of flesh in the body is decreasing. We 
have thus a means of comparing the effects of different food mate- 
rials on the building of flesh in the body. 

THE RESPIRATION APPARATUS. 

But it is important to know from what ingredients of the food 
the fat of the body is made, and what ones supply material for the 
production of animal heat and muscular force. These questions 
are very difficult to solve, and the views of physiologists concern- 
ing them are, at present, quite conflicting. The only practicable 
method for their solution seems to be to measure and analyze, not 
only the food, but also all of the final products of its use in the 
body. That is to say, we must learn the amount and composition 
of the solid and liquid excrement, and the gaseous' compounds 
given off through the skin and lungs as well; we must analyze the 
air both before and after the animal breathes it. This is done by 
experiments for which a so-called respiration apparatus is used. 

This consists essentially of a large chest or compartment with 
air-tight walls, in which is placed an animal, for instance, an ox. 
The interior is furnished with arrangements for supplying food and 
water and collecting the excrement and urine. By appropriate 
machinery a current of fresh air is introduced through openings 
provided for the purpose, and after it has supplied the wants of 
the animal for respiration, it is drawn out, bringing with it the 
gaseous products of respiration, into a gasometer, where it is 
measured. It is then analyzed, and a comparison of its composi- 
tion with that before it had passed through the apparatus, shows 
18 



146 

what* material has lieon added to it by the rospiration of the 
animal.* 

The experiments with the respiration apparatus are very compli- 
cated and difficult. The animals are watched day and night, every 
bit of food, all the excrement, and all the urine, are carefully 
weighed and analyzed. A single experiment often requires several 
months for its completion. 

SOURCES OF THE FLESH AND FAT OF THE ANIMAL BODY. 

It is common to see the albuminoids of foods classed as "flesh- 
formers," and the carbohydrates as "fat-formers." This is in 
accordance with the theory of Liebig, that, aside from the fats of 
the food, the carbohydrates, sugar, starch, etc., are the main source 
of the fats of the body and of milk. That the flesh, the lean meat, 
etc., come from albuminoids, there is no question. But of late 
many physiologists — notably Voit — have maintained that animals 
get their fat from the albuminoids, and not from the carbohydrates 
of their food. It is well settled that the albuminoids can and do, 
by their decomposition, supply a good deal of fat for storing in the 
body and making milk. Whether the carbohydrates do the same 
is still an open question. Wolff concludes that carnivora cannot, 
herbivora may, and swine probably do, produce fat from the car- 
bohydrates of the food. Henneberg, at the meeting of German 
naturalists and physicians at Hamburg in 1876, expressed his 
opinion that fat is formed of carbohydrates by swine ; and this 
would probably prove to be the case with other animals. Henne- 
berg, on the same occasion, presented some calculations which led 
to the inference that 100 parts of albuminoids may produce 51.4 
parts of fats. 

The present condition of our knowledge of this subject may be 
briefly stated as follows: 

The Uses of Food in the Body, 

Alhuminoids. — The lean meat (muscle), "gristle," connective 
tissues, casein (curd) of milk, and nitrogenous materials of the 
body generally, are made from the albuminoids of the food. 
The albuminoids are also decomposed before or after they have 
been stored in the body, to make the fat which is stored in the 



*For description of respiration apparatus and its use, see American Agricul- 
turist, September, 1876, p. 329. 



147 

body, and the fat (butter) of the milk. Some of the carbohydrates 
of the body, i. e.. milk sugar, seem to come from albuminoids 
also. The albuminoids, or their decomposition products, serve for 
fuel to keep up the supply of animal heat, and it seems probable 
that, somehow or other, the albuminoids are the main source of 
muscular force. This source of force in the body is, however, one 
of the knotty problems which science has yet to settle. It is 
strongly maintained by some of the most eminent physiological 
chemists that the carbohydrates and fats are the main source of 
muscular force. 

Carbohydrates. — The main use of the carbohydrates seems to be 
for fuel. They are transformed into sugar in the digestive 
process, and appear to be stored as such, e. g., in milk sugar. 
It now seems probable that carbohydrates can be transformed into 
fats in the herbivorous animals and in swine, but it is very doubt- 
ful whether horses, cattle, and sheep get much fat from them. 
Though the carbohydrates do so very little to build up and repair 
the tissues, they are yet very essential. They serve for fuel, and 
thus save the albuminoids and fats which would otherwise be 
consumed. 

Fats. — The fats of the food are stored as fat in the body, and 
make part of the fat in the milk. They also serve for fuel. 

It thus appears that (1) the muscles and other nitrogenous tissues 
of the body come and must come exclusively from the albuminoids 
of the food; (2) the fats come from the albuminoids and fats of 
the food, and to only slight extent, if at all, from the carbohydrates; 
(3^ that the source of muscular force is. a question, with the present 
balance of probability in favor of the albuminoids as the main 
factors, and (4) that all the food ingredients supply the fuel for 
respiration and the production of animal heat. 

FOOD MIXTURES AND RATIONS. 

The next step before us is to learn how much of the nutrients, 
the digestible albuminoids, carbohydrates, and fats, different ani- 
mals need for maintenance, and for production of meat, milk, 
work, etc. The German experimenters have studied into this 
matter very carefully, in two ways; first, by experiments, feeding 
animals with different kinds and amounts of food, and noting the 
effects; second, by observing the methods and Results of feeding, 
as practiced by the most successful farmers. On the basis of these 



148 

two kinds of observations feeding standards have been calculated, 
as shown at the end of this article. In })rief, it has been found 
that full-grown oxen, at rest in tlic^ stall, can Ite kept for long 
periods in fair condition with food of such sort as to supply 
them, per 1.000 lbs. live weight, with 0.6 lbs. albuminoids, and 7.0 
lbs. carbohydrates, in forms to be digested and taken into the cir- 
culation. It has ])een found well to have this supplied by 14-15 
lbs. dry substance in the food. With rations furnishing these 
amounts of digestible ingredients, there has sometimes been 
observed a slight improvement, but perhaps oftener a small falling 
off in condition. In would appeal', on the whole, better to increase 
the ration, so as to give 0.7 lbs. nitrogenous, and a little over 8 lbs. 
non-nitrogenous nutrients, with a nutritive ratio of 1:12. It 
seems to make little difference in what forms these are given, 
whether in hay, straw, oilmeal, or otherwise, provided the food be 
wholesome and palatable. 

If, now, the ox is to be worked or fattened, food for production 
of meat or force is required. Or if, instead of an ox, we have a 
milch cow, she will need food for production of milk, in addition 
to what is necessary to maintain her body in good condition. And 
this food for production must be not only larger in quantity, but 
different in quahty; it must have a larger proportion of albumin- 
oids, — the nutritive ratio must be narrower. 

Rations fob Milch Cows. 

For instance, it is believed that a fair daily ration for a milch 
cow would contain, for 1,000 lbs. live weight, 24 pounds of or- 
ganic substance ; and that this latter should furnish, of digestible 
material, 2.5 pounds albuminoids, 12.5 pounds carbohydrates, and 
0.4 pounds fat, the nutritive ratio being 1 : 5.4. 

This accords with practical experience. Young succulent grass 
and the finer qualities of upland hay are excellent for producing milk. 
From medium or poorer hay alone the best yield cannot be obtained. 
If, for the grass, we take the mean between pasture grass and grass 
just before blossom, as given in the table at the end of the article, 
and for hay the mean between the " very good " and " best " quahty 
and compare these, green clover cut just before blossom, and 
" poor " quality hay with our calculated ration we shall have the 
following figures : 



149 

Furnishing in Digestible Form 

Contains 

Fodder for 1,000 lbs. live \vt. ori,'aiiic Albumin- Carbo- p ., Nutritive 

substance. oids. hydrates. rtns. Katio. 

lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 

Calculated ration, 24.0 2.5 12.5 0.4 1:5.4 

30 lbs. of fine quality hay, 23.2 2.49 12.78 0.33 1:5.6 

120 lbs. young grass, 24.1 2.6 13.5 0.5 1:5.7 

140 lbs young clover, 23.9 3.54 11.4 0.73 1:3.8 

40 lbs. poor quality hay, 32.3 1.36 14. 0.2 110.6 

We see then, that 30 pounds of fine quality hay or 120 pounds 
of young succulent grass, both of which materials are excellent for 
producing milk, would furnish just about the amounts and propor- 
tions which it is calculated a milch cow would need to give a full 
yield. One hundred and fifty-four pounds of young clover con- 
tain about the same amount of digestible material, but this is richer 
than it need be in nitrogen. On the other hand, it would require 
40 pounds of "poor quality hay " to furnish as much nutritive 
matter as the 30 pounds " fine quality " hay or 120 pounds of young 
grass, and this would contain only about one-half as much albumi- 
noids as the cow needs for production. And we should certainly 
not expect a cow to give the best yield with such fodder. 

Let us compare now the nutritive ratios of albuminoids to carbo- 
hydrates in these rations. In the better hay and young grass we 
have one pound of albuminoids to about 5^ of carbohydrates, in 
the poorer hay 1 to 10|, and in the young clover 1 to 3f. Cows 
will do well on the young grass, and little if any better on the 
young clover, but they will not do as well on the poor hay. 

In fact, in numerous experiments conducted with the utmost care, 
cows have been found to give just as much milk, and just as rich 
milk, with mixtures of clover and straw, calculated to supply the 
nutrients in about the propoi'tions in the standard above, as they 
did with all the green clover they would eat. The straw is poor in 
albuminoids, clover contains them in excess. The two together 
make a ration fitted to the animals' needs, and one in which there 
is no waste. In experiments by Kiihn, one-third of the cost of the 
food was saved by substituting the mixed ration of straw and clo- 
ver for green clover alone.* 

* Mr. L. W. Miller, of Stockton, N. J., practices the feeding of dry cows with 
corn meal alone. He states that a cow of 900 lbs. weight can be kept through 
the winter on three quarts of meal per day. This would give only a little over 
half the quantity of nutrients required by WolfFs standard for an ox or cow at 
rest. It has been suggested that the experiments of Mr. Miller do not show 
how much of the fat in the body of the animals is replaced by water, under this 
system of feeding, that we do not know how much less nutrients the animal 



150 

Effect of Fodder upon Milk Production. 

The experiments of Kiihn at Moockorn* on the effects of different 
kinds and amounts of food upon the production of milk by cows are 
coming to assume great importance. Eight series have now (Jan. 
1S78,) been reported in full. These include eighty-four single experi- 
ments with twenty-six cows. It appears that after the ration has 
reached a certain amount of food of Gtting composition, (1) in- 
crease of the food brings an increase of the total yield of milk; 
(2) the ''richness" of the milk, the percentage of dry or solid 
matters, increases at the same time; (3) there is a limit to this 
improvement in quality and amount of the milk, varying with 
different breeds and individuals; (4) changes in the composition 
of the rations, in the proportion of albuminoids, carbohydrates, 
and fats they contain, do not produce corresponding changes in 
the composition of the solid matters of the milk. The proportions 
of casein, albumen, fat, and sugar in the milk rise and fall parallel 
with each other; at least, the variations are slight, and not parallel 
with those in the ingredients of the food. 

In short, it does not seem practicable, by altering the quality of 
the food, to increase, for instance, the fat at the expense of the 
casein of the milk; to change a "cheese cow " into a butter cow, 
or vice versa. A few exceptions to this rule have indeed been 
found. Two cows out of thirty experimented upon at Moeckern 
and Hohenheim have shown an evident antl some others an appar- 
ent relative increase in the fat of the milk when material rich in 
albuminoids, particularly palm -cake freed from oil, was added to 
the ration. 

needs when relieved of the labor needful to extract the actu.nl nutriment from the 
indigestible matter in the ordinary ration of hay, straw, etc., and further, that 
the cows fed on meal doubtless drink less water than with ordinary coarse 
foods, and hence require less nutrients, since, as the German experiments show, 
the consumption of albuminoids is increased with increase of the water taken 
with the food. These seem to me the most obvious exjjlanations of the 
discrepancy between the corn meal ration and the feeding standard. But the 
matter cannot be settled without accurate compiirison.s of the amounts of carbon 
and nitrogen taken from the food, with the amounts given oflF again from the 
body. For such tests a respiration apparatus is necessary. 

* See Report of Conn. Board of Agriculture 1874, page 170, for fuller details- 
It is worth uoting that in all the Moeckern and Hohenheim experiments the 
separate periods in which the different food mixtures are given are generally 
from two to three weeks each. It is not demonstrated that in trials through 
long periods of months or year.s changes in the relative projiortions of albumin 
oids and fat in the milk could not be induced by the composition of the food. 



151 

CHANGES IN THE MILK DURING THE T'EHIOD OF LACTATION. 

The Moeckern experiments have also given more accurate data 
upon this subject than have been ever before obtained. In gen- 
eral, the total yield of milk decreases as the milking period ad- 
vances. The shrinkage is exaggerated by poor feeding, and can 
be prevented in part by adequate food and consequent mainte- 
nance of the body in good condition. The richness of the milk, 
the percentage of solids, increases. The increase can be aided by 
proper feeding, and partly prevented by inadequate nourishment 
and consequent falling-oif in condition. As regards the changes 
in relative proportions of solid matters, their ratios to each other, 
the proportion of fat seems to decrease and that of casein to 
increase somewhat; that of albumen diminishes, while the sugar 
remains constant. 

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS FROM EXPERIMENTS ON MILK PRODUCTION. 

Among the general principles deducible from the latter experi- 
menting on milk-production by cows, two of the weightiest are, 
that, (1) of the food ingredients, the most important, as factors of 
the milk-production, are the albuminoids, and (2) that the production 
is controlled to a much greater extent than is commonly supposed 
by the bodily condition. And these two principles are, in fact, 
corollaries of the single broader one developed by late research in 
this department of animal physiology — that the function of the 
lacteal glands is not entirely, or even mainly, that of filters through 
which certain ingredients of the blood are secreted as milk, but 
that they themselves produce, by metamorphosis of their own sub- 
stance, the larger part of the solids of the. milk. As Voit says, 
" the milk is essentially this organ, liquefied by fatty degeneration." 
It seems fairly well settled that all the casein and a good part of 
the fat and sugar of the milk are products of metamorphosis of 
the milk glands; that of the fat and sugar supplied by the blood, 
a portion results from similar metamorphoses in other parts of the 
body; and hence only a small residue of fat and sugar can come 
directly from the food. 

Accordingly, to effect any considerable changes in the milk, we 
must first work upon tbe body, and provide it, particularly the 
milk glands, with material for making the milk. And since albu- 
minoids are the chief tissue-formers, they are most important for 
producing casein and fat in the milk. It is clear, then, that to 
produce a good yield of milk the animal must be kept in good 
condition by proper feeding; that the food, to be most economical, 



152 

Tiiust contain tho proper proportions of albuniiiioKlh, carlioliy*! rates,' 
and fats; and tliat tho composition of the milk is decided by the 
pecidiarities of tho breed and individual rather than ])y the food. 
The practical application of these principles is apparent. For 
quality of milk select proper breeds; for amount, good milkers. 
Suit the food to the wants of the animal and feed well but not 
over richly. 

General Conclusions concerning Fodder Rations. 
The proportion of digestible albuminoids and carbohydrates is 
the cornerstone of tho present theory of feeding. But the corner- 
stone is not the whole building. There are a great many things 
to be taken into consideration in deciding what is the most econom- 
ical food in any given case. 

VARIATIONS IN COMPOSITION OF PLANTS OF SAME KIND. 

In the first place, the composition of tho plant, its content of 
nutritive material, varies considerably with the variations of soil, 
manuring, weather, maturity at time of harvest, etc. Tho flavor 
of the food, too, seems to have a great deal to do with the good the 
animal gets from it. Why this is so we cannot exactly tell, but 
the fact is an important one. 

INDIVIDUAL PECULIARITIES OF ANIMALS. 

In the second place, the utilization of the fodder depends upon 
the peculiarities of the animal. Among these latter are : 

1st. The size or weight of the animal. In general, animals of 
medium weight are better utilizers of food than very large or very 
small ones. That is to say, a number of animals of medium size, 
weighing 10,000 lbs., will require in general less nutriment than a 
smaller number of very large, or a largo number of very small ones 
of the same breed, and the same total weight. There can of 
course be exceptional cases, when the large animals will be the 
most profitable. 

2d. The condition of the animal. Lean animals, for instance, 
require less "maintenance fodder," loss nutriment to keep them in 
uniform condition than fat ones. 

3d. But perhaps the most important of these considerations is 
in the difference in the capacity of different animals for utilizing 
food. Perhaps the greatest difficulty with general receipts, is that a 
ration may bo adapted to the wants of one animal, of a given 
weight, while it is too large for a second, and insufficient for a 
third. Indeed one of the great lessons that the advanced experi- 



153 



ence of to-day teaches is the need of stud)dng the individual pecu- 
liarities of the animals we feed. 

And finally, it must be remembered that the science of cattle- 
feeding is still new. Much has been learned, but there is much 
more to be found out. Future experimenting and experience may 
modify some of our present views very materially. 

COMMENTS UPON THE COMPOSITION AND VALUES 

OF SUNDRY FEEDING STUFFS. 

Let us now notice the composition and values of some of the 

feeding stuffs of which analyses were reported on pages 20-39 

of this report, and in the table on page 17 L The following figures 

illustrate the composition of several varieties of 

Indian Corn and Cobs. 



KINDS OF CORN 



B. New England Yellow, 8- rowed, 

XXXII. New England Yellow, 8-rowed,. . . 

1. New England " Golden," 8-rowed, 

Average of Nos. 1, 2, and .3, 



C. King Philip or Rliode Island,. 

2. Mass. White Flint, 

3. Mass. Red Flint, 

A. Early Button 

D. Stowell's Evergreen Sweet, . . . 

4. Burr's Sweet, 

Average of Nos. 8 and 9, , 



XLI. Western Yellow, 

5. Western Yellow, Kansas, 

6. Western Yellow, Illinois, 

Average of Nob. 10, 11, and 12, 



7. Southern White, large 16-rowed, 
XLII. Southern White, ordinary, 



XXXin. Cobs from N. E. Yellow, No. 2,. 
Cobs, German (Wolff's Tables),. 



10.5 
12 
12.5 
12.7 

9.8 
10.2 
12.0 

8.1 
10.9 
10 
10.8 



1.3.9 
11.3 
13.6 
13.0 

11.6 
13.8 

11.5 
14.0 



ORGANIC 
SUBSTANCE. 



9.7 
10.0 
10.3 
10.0 

11.9 
9.2 
12.1 
9.6 
11.1 
11.7 
11.4 

8.8 
8.8 
9.2 

8.9 

10.6 
8.9 

1.2 
1.4 



^<5 



2.4 
1.2 
1.4 
1.7 

2.2 
1 

2.0 
2.5 
2.6 
4.9 
3.8 

1.6 
1.3 
.3.1 
2.0 

2.7 
0.9 

38.3 

37.8 



71.6 
07.0 
69.4 
69.3 

70.1 
74.3 
69.5 
72.6 
65.9 
62.7 
64.3 

81.9 
72.9 
09.1 

70.8 

09.0 
71.1 

47.6 
42.6 



4.4 
5.3 
4.9 
4.9 

4.5 
.3.4 
.3.4 
5.7 

7.7 
7.8 

7.7 

3.9 
4.6 
3.6 

4.0 

4.1 
4.0 

0.1 
1.4 



Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, were analyzed by Mr. S. P. Sharpless ; No. 7, 
under direction of Prof. S. W. Johnson ; the rest by the writer and his assistants. 

Taking the results of German experiments for digestibility as a 
basis, the digestible ingredients and valuations (as explained in 
connection with the tables at the end of this article) of the kinds of 
corn above-named will be as follows. The digestibility of cobs 
has not, so far as I know, been tested. The proportions are, as 
assumed by Wolff, evidently from analogy with materials where 
digestibility has been determined by experiment: 
19 



154 



KINDS OV COllN. 



N. E. Yellow, 8-rowe(l, average. 
Kiug Philip or Uliodo Island. . . 

Ma.'^sacliusetls White Fliut 

Massachu.^etts Red Flint 

Early Dntton 

Sweet, average 

Western yellow, average 

Southern White, ordinary 

Cohs from N. E. Yellow 

Cobs, German — Wolff's Tables. 





DIOESTtBLE 




MONET 


a> 


NIJTIUBNTS. 




vam™. 


P. 






d 
I 

a 






S 

O 

% 

!?5 


Albuminoids. 


Carbo- 
hydrates. 


I 


-1 

Q 






per ct. 


per ct. 


per ct. 


1: 






3 


8.4 


65.8 


3.7 


8.6 


SI. 09 


1.70 


1 


10.0 


66.7 


3.4 


. 7.5 


1.18 


1.84 


1 


7.7 


70.3 


2.6 


9.9 


1.00 


1.56 


1 


10.1 


66.0 


2.6 


7.2 


1.07 


1.67 


1 


8.1 


69.2 


4.3 


9.9 


1.16 


1 81 


2 


9.6 


61.8 


5.9 


8.0 


1.19 


1.86 


3 


7..') 


67.3 


3.1 


10.0 


1.04 


1.63 


1 


7..^) 


67.1 


3.1 


10.0 


1.06 


1.66 


1 


0.5 


43.0 


0.0 


86.0 


.40 


0.64 




0.6 


41.7 


0.4 


71.2 


.40 


0.64 



Eastern vh. Western Corn. 
These figures confirm the current opinion of farmers that eastern 
corns have a higher nutritive value than western, though the differ- 
ence is less than is frequently assumed. The Sweet corn leads; then 
come the Early l)utton and Rhode Island, which, however, appear 
to bettei' advantage, ])ecause of the dryness of the samples; then the 
New England Yellow or Canada, the Southern White, the Western 
Yellow, and, lowest of all, the Massachusetts White Flint. But it 
must l)e borne in mind that the number of samples is smidl, ami 
further analyses may give somewhat different results. 

The Nutritive Value of Cobs 

in the table is over one-half that of corn, higher than most farmers 
would put it. As 1 have said, accurate experiment.s to test their 
digestibility are still lacking. The proportions assumed are such 
as seem probable from experiments with other foods. It will be 
noticed that the value is almost entirely in the carbohydrates, there 
being extremely little of albuminoids and fats, — the most important 
ingredients. It seems to me a question whethei- the carbohydrates 
in the cobs are as digestible as the figures assume. Analysis and 
experience both indicate that cobs fed alone would barely keep an 
animal froux starving. But mixed with other materials to furnish 
what they lack, they must be valuable It would be very foolish 
to make a pair of boots all of neck or split leather; but with good 



155 

materials for soles and fronts, the poor leather will do for backs 
and linings, and it will be far better economy to put it there than 
to throw it away. A great many farmers practically recognize 
this principle in feeding corn and cobs together. At the same 
time it is true that most farmers have relatively too much of 
the poor, coarse foods, that have little value outside their carbohy. 
drates, and unless they feed rich nitrogenous foods, like cotton-seed 
meal, linseed cake, palm-nut meal, bran, etc., with them, the cobs 
may not be worth the grinding. 

Western Corn Shelled vs. Eastern Corn with Cobs. 
No. XXXII was a good fair specimen of eight-rowed New Eng- 
land Yellow corn, grown in 1877 on the farm of Mr. C. Sage, of Mid- 
dletown, Conn. The ears May 1, 1878, gave 16|- lbs. = (^) cobs 
per 100 lbs., which is probably a fair average for well cured corn 
of that kind; a bushel of kernels weighed 59 lbs. 3 oz. The com- 
po.sition was just about equal to the average of the samples of 
eastern corn in the table. Nos. XLI and XLII were taken at the 
same time from the store of Messrs. Coles & Atkins, Middletown. 
No. XLI weighed 53^ lbs. per measured bushel; cost 62-^- cts. 
per bushel of 56 lbs.; was pronounced a very good specimen of 
Western Yellow corn, and agrees in composition with the average 
of the three samples of that kind. No. XLII weighed 54 lbs. per 
measured bushel; cost 70 cts. for 56 lbs., and was likewise a very 
good quality of Southern White. 100 lbs. of ears of Mr. Sage's 
corn, in the ear, and 100 lbs. of each of the others shelled, would 
compare as below: 



Digestible. 

Fats. 



Albu- Carbo- p . Nitrogen Valu- 

minoids. hydrates. J^'"''- Ratio. ation. 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

N. E. Yellow Corn 83^ lbs 7.0 52.8 3.4 1:8.9 $0.93 

" 16§ " 0.1 7.1 ... 1:71.0 0.07 

N. E. Yellow Ears 100 " 7.2 59.9 3.5 1:9.2 1.00 

W. Yellow Corn 100 " 7.4 67.8 3.0 1:10.0 1.05 

Southern White 100 " 7.5 67.1 3.1 1:10.0 1.06 

That is to say, by the above figures, 100 lbs. of Mr. Sage's corn 
in the ear, with 83^- lbs. of corn and 16f lbs. cobs, contained a 
trifle less nutritive matter than 100 lbs. of the Western Yellow 
com, for which his neighbors were paying $1.07, or the Southern 
White, which cost $1.25. Of course the cost of grinding is an 
important factor. The palatability and healthfulness of the cobs 
are factors of their value of which chemical analysis says nothing. 



156 



Hungarian Grass and PfAY. 

The frequent discussions of the composition and value of Hun- 
garian grass and liay will warrant a few words concerning the 
samples referred to on page 32. The full data as to soil, culture, 
and crop, furnished by Dr. Alsop with the samples, add to the 
interest and value of the analyses. The analyses commonly 
quoted for Hungarian grass are German. I give composition of 
the samples referred to, and, for sake of comparison, German 
analyses by Moser and Metzdorf.* 



HUNGARIAN GRASS AND HAY. 

• 


1 


< 


1 
o 

a 

1 

3 
5 


>> 

"3 
O 

o 


i 

2 

V 
£ 
o 

O 


i 


XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 


Grass,— Green Fodder. 

Dr. Alsop's. 
Cut. Ileijjht. Development. 
July ITtli, 18-2(1 inches, In blossom.. . . 
Aug. 3(1, -M-U " Out of blossom . 

Aug. 18th, 32-10 " Nearly ripe 

German (later sown). 

July 8th, 3-4 inches, 

July 2l8t 8 10 " 


prcf. 

75.0 
70.0 
70.0 

80.6 
78.7 
69.0 
65.6 
62.9 

16.7 
16.7 
16.7 


prct. 

2.2 
1.5 
1.9 

2.5 
2.5 
2.4 
2.3 

2.1 

7.2 
4.3 
5.3 


prct. 

3.2 
2.'.» 
2.1 

4.9 
5.3 
6.9 
5.9 

5.8 

10.7 
8.0 
5.7 


prct. 

8.7 
9.9 
10.4 

4.6 
5.5 
9.4 
11.3 
11.5 

28.9 
27.6 
29.9 


prct. 

10.4 
15.0 
15.0 


prct. 

0.6 
0.6 
0.0 




7.10 
8.06 




Aug 10th' 15-10 " 


12.5 


XXIV 


Aug. 24th, 18-24 " In blossom 

Sept. 7th, After blossom . . 

IlAY. 

Dr. Alsop's. 


15. 

17. 

:m.5 



4 

2.0 


XXV. 




41.7 
41.7 


1.7 


XXVI. 


Aug. 18lh, Nearly ripe 

German (later soivn). 
Aug loth 


1.6 








Aug. 24th, In blossom 


12.5 
12.5 


5.8 
5.5 


14.9 
13.6 


28.5 
27.3 


38.0 




Sept 7th, After blossom 


41.1 











Calculated in the manner described in the Appendix, the digesti- 
bility and feeding values of Dr. Alsop's Hungarian compare with 
European products as follows : 

* Wilda's Centralblatt, 1861, I, 552. 



157 



HUNGARIAN AND OTHER GRASSES 

AND HAYS.* 

A, Dr. Alsop's. W., German from Wolff's Tables. 



GUEEN POBUER. 

Hungarian Grass— in blossom, W 

A.... 
" out of blossom, A. 

Timothy Grass — in blossom. W 

Clover Grass— in blossom, W. 

Rich Pasture Grass, W 

Fodder Corn, Southern White— youn 

Hay. 

Hungarian Hay— in blossom, W 

A 

■' out of blossom. A.. 

nearly ripe, A 

Timothy Hay— average, W 

Meadow " " W 

Clover Hay— average, W 



DIGKSTIBLB 

NUTRIENTS. 



prct. 

1.8 

1.8 
1.4 
2.1 
1.7 
3.4 
0.9 



6.1 
6.0 
4.0 
2.8 
5.8 
5.4 
7.0 



pr ct. 
11.8 
11.5 
13.2 
16.0 

8.7 
10.9 

7.6 



41.0 
38.3 
36.7 
37.5 
43.4 
41.0 
38.1 



pr ct. 
0.3 
0.2 
(t.2 
0.5 
0.4 
0.6 
0.1 



0.9 
0.8 
0.5 
0.5 
1.4 
1.0 
1.2 



7.0 
6.7 
9.4 
8.3 
5.7 
3.6 



7.1 
6.7 
9.4 
14.0 
8.1 
8.0 
5.9 



MONEY 
VAUTB. 



O (Di 



O ft 
O 



$0.19 
0.19 
0.19 
0.28 
0.17 
0.27 
0.11 



0.67 
0.64 
0.52 
0.48 
0.69 
0.64 
0.69 



a fetd 
o "^ 



0.30 
0.30 
0.30 
0.42 
0.26 
0.42 
0.17 



1.03 
1.00 
0.81 
0.75 
1.09 
1.00 
1.08 



HUNGARIA.N IN GENERAL. 

Those who know the most about Hungarian grass, ascribe to it 
two chief peculiarities, deep rooting and rapid growth. Being a 
deep feeder it stands drought, and often brings very large crops 
in soils and seasons where other grasses would fail. It requires, 
however, a rather loose soil with not too compact subsoil, doing 
best on sandy loams and the like. Humus and lime are said to be 
favorable to its growth. The soil should be deeply plowed and 
well tilled. On account of its deep feeding Hungarian is said to 
exhaust the upper layers of the soil less than other grasses. It does 
particularly well on newly broken land or after a hoed crop like 
corn, potatoes, or roots. Being a rapid grower, fresh dung is said 
not to be so good for it as well rotted manure or concentrated 
fertilizers. It wants a good supply of available food in the soil. 
It may be sown at any time from May to August, its rapid 
growth permitting it to be cut early and cleared away for 
a fall crop, or sown late to piece out the scanty fodder of a dry 
summer or fall. Cattle are said not to relish it so well when cut 
too young. At the same time if it stands too long it gets coarse, 
strawy, and undigestible. I have no data at hand to show how 
large crops are generally obtained with us. European figures 
put the yield at from 2 to 3^ tons per acre. 



* See also table on page 171. 



168 

Ft appears thai Dr. Alsop's Hungarian grass cut in blossom 
agrees exactly with Wolff's average for (Ji-rrnan, both being 
reckoned on basis of 7a per cent, of water. Dr. Alsop'.s hay in 
the table falls a tritle below the German. Tliis is because it is 
reckoned on basis of 1<;.7 per cent, of water, wluTeas Wolff 
Jissunios only 13.4 per cent.* Like otiier gras.ses, tlie Hungarian 
as it grows older has less albuminoids and more woody fiber. At 
the same time, it becomes less digestible. The Hungarian hay, 
No. XXVI, is worth al)Out one-fourtli less pourid for [)ound than 
No. XXIV, according to the calculation on ])age 171. 

The youngest hay, with one pound of digestible albuminoids to 
(5.7 11)S. of carbohydrates is a good fodder, but the old hay with 
only one pound ailtuminoids to 14 of carbohydrates, is jKjor; it lacks 
material to make flesh, fal, and milk. Dr. Alsop's Hungarian hay, 
cut in blossom, is just about equal to the average (lerman meadow 
hay (English grasses), which is eipiivalent to saying it is decidedly 
l)ettei- than avex'age upland hay with us. Our hay suffers in com- 
I)arison with theirs, because we do not manure nor till our land so 
well, and often cut our grass late. 

Dr. Alsop's crop of Hungarian was not large. Cut early in 
blossom, the yield on tlie whole field fell short of two tons of hay 
per acre. But it made excellent fodder, and the land was in good 
condition, so that it has, in the two succeeding seasons, brought 
six tons of good hay and rowen, and promises to continue to do 
well for some time to come. 

Timothy and Clover Hays. 
The samples referred to on page 20 are worthy of attention. 
The timothy grew on an old meadow, pretty well run out. The 
yields were at the rate of from 1^ to \^ tons per acre. On com- 
paring the analyses with European figures (see tables in Appendix) 
we were struck with the inferiority of our samples. The best one, 
No. Xni, cut when "well headed out," had only 8.37 per cent, 
albuminoids, whereas the inferior hays in the German tables have 
from 7.5 to 9.2 per cent, albuminoids. The sample cut in full 
blossom had only 6.23 per cent, albuminoids, less than poorest 
German hays, and the others, cut later, are, of course, worse still. 

Well Manured vs. Poorly Manured Crops. 
I think there is a good lesson here for New England farmers. 
Forage crops grown on rich land are not merely larger in quantity 

* See page 60. 



159 

than those from poor soils : they are also better in quality — they are 
richer in nitrogen. The German analyses represent the products 
that come with the abundant manuring and good tillage which 
characterize the best European farming. Professor Farrington's 
early cut clover, and Dr. Alsop's Hungarian, both grown on land in 
good condition, agree almost exactly with the European averages 
for corresponding products. But the timothy from the old meadow 
falls far below the European average, and is but little better than 
good straw. 

The Value of Hays Cut at Different Periods of Growth 
Is an important matter. A series of experiments in Germany, 
detailed in the paper in the Report for 1874 referred to, indicated 
that the clover crop has its greatest feeding value Just as it gets 
fully in blossom. The figures below give resulte of experiments 
bearing upon this subject. The samples were cut at four different 
periods of growth. They were : A. Timothy from the farm of the 
Maine Agricultural College at Orono. B. Timothy from farm of 
Mr. J. M. Hubbard, Middletown. C. Native grasses from Mr. 
Hubbard's farm. 

In each experiment, eight small plots, one-half square rod or one 
square rod, were measured off, and cut two at a time at each of 
the four periods. The object of the duplicates was to get an idea 
of the evenness or unevenness of the yield. The money values 
are based upon the composition of the Orono samples, wliicli were 
the only ones analyzed. That is, they represent the value of the 
Orono timothy per acre, on the assumption that the yield would 
be the same as the average of all these experiments. No account of 
the nearly ripe hay is made in the vahiations, as it would not be fit 
for fodder. 



Period of Growth. 


A. 

Timothy, 

Orono." 


A. 

Timothy, 

Middletown. 


C. 

Native Grasses, 

Middletown. 


3634 
4100 
4409 

.5331 


2 

ft 




a. 


b. 


a. 

4169 
4471 
5551 

6351 


b. 

4702 
5263 
5991 

7497 


a. 


b. 


S o. 


Just headed out 

In full blossom 

Out of blossom 


2640 
4240 
3920 

4240 


3600 
3280 
3280 

4160 


3987 
4499 
4239 


2707 
2847 
3474 


#22.53 
21.32 

22.48 


Nearly ripe 


9406 













The fir.st three periods of growth represent the time during 
which farmers oi'dinaiily gatlier their hay. As the figures come 



160 

uxit, the yields liave just about tlie same feeding value;. These 
trials are of course too few and incomplete to decide so important 
a matter. I think, however, a sufficient amount of experimenting 
in this line might throw a good deal of light upon the question. 
The data at our disposal come mostly from the observed composi- 
tion and digestibility which, though the chief, are not the only fa(;- 
tors of tlie nutritive value. More feeding trials are needed. 
Some late feeding experiments by Mr. Sanborn of tlie N. H. Agri- 
cultural College gave results rather unfavorable to very early cut- 
ting. One matter about which we are not yet certain is the nature 
and nutritive value of the nitrogenous material in the grass at 
different periods of development. In the earlier periods particu- 
larly, some of it appears to be in the non-albuminoid form.s referred 
to on page 21. 

In some German investigations that have just come to hand, 
Kellner finds in young grass large enough to cut with the scyth^, 
31.6 per cent, of the nitrogen in non-albuminoid forms. In a 
sample cut early in blossom, 13.4 per cent., and in one cut when 
over ripe, only 2.5 per cent, of the whole nitrogen was non-albu- 
minoid. According to this, one-third of the nitrogen in young 
pasture grass, and one-eighth of that in grass eai-ly in blossom, 
would be in forms of uncertain but probably low value. These 
facts add force to the belief that in the reaction from the wasteful 
practice of letting grass stand until it is nearly ripe, some farmers 
are going too far the other way, and cutting too early. 

It must be remembered that there are other things to be taken 
into account besides the feeding value, in deciding what is the 
best time to cut grass. The effect upon the succeeding crop is 
very important. Mr. Hubbard noticed a very decided difference 
in the botanical character of the next year's gi'owth upon the 
plots that had been cut at different times. Some observers think 
early cutting tends to make the grass run out. These and kindred 
questions must be tested by actual trial. Co-operative experiments 
on a common plan, in different places, would be very useful aids to 
their solution. From the facts at hand, it would seem that from 
early in the time of blossom, to that of full blossom, is on the 
whole the best period for cutting grass and clover. The hay thus 
obtained is easily digestible, and has a good percentage of albu- 
minoids. But as it grows older the proportion of nitrogejj 
decreases, and that of woody fiber grows larger, the hay 
becomes less digestible, the digested material is poorer because 



161 

it lacks albuminoids, and finally the hay is not so palatable. 
For all these reasons, the late cut hay is worth far less for feeding, 
Timothy and clover grown on rich land, cut early, and well cured, 
make excellent fodder. Grown on poor soil, and cut late, they 
are pretty poor stuff. A great deal of the hay that lies in bams 
in New England is but little better than good straw. 

CoTTON-SEED Meal, Linseed Meal, Palm-Nut Meal, and Bean, 

Are foods whose value farmers in this country are just begin- 
ning to appreciate. European farmers long since found out how 
much they are worth, and thousands of tons of American oil-cake 
and meal have been carried across the Atlantic to enrich English, 
French, and German foods and soils. The time has come when 
we must keep them at home if we are going to redeem our farm- 
ing. The great value of these foods is due to two facts. 

First, they supply the albuminoids and fats in which poor hay, 
straw, corn-stalks and the like are lacking. 

Second, they make rich manure. 

How they may be used with poor foods to make good rations 
at small cost is illustrated in the tables in the Appendix. The 
reason for the inferior value of straw, poor hay, and the like, is 
not merely that they contain little nutritive substance, but also and 
mainly because they lack albuminoids. This becomes plain when 
we consider how large a share of the work of nutrition is done by 
the albuminoids (see explanations in Appendix), and how little of 
these the poor foods furnish in digestible form. Chemistry indi- 
cates, experiments prove, and expei'ience corroborates the princi- 
ples that poor foods, late cut hay, marsh hay, straw, corn-stalks, etc., 
can be utihzed and made very valuable by feeding with them 
nitrogenous foods such as oil-meal, bran, and clover hay, to supply 
what they lack; that such mixtures make the very best rations ; 
and still further, that this is one of the best and cheapest ways to 
get good manure. 

Dried Blood, Meat Scrap and Fish as Food for Stock. 
Years ago, oil-cake used to be employed as a fertilizer. Chem- 
istry said that it ought to be first fed to stock, that it had a high 
nutritive value, that in going through the animal machine but little 
of the most valuable material was consumed, and that the residue 
was worth more for manure than before. Experience proved that 
all this was true, and now nobody would think of using linseed- 
20 > 



102 

cake or cottonseed meal for manure. Of late, ininiense (juantilies 
of slaughter-house refuse, dried blood, dried intestines, and the 
like, and still larger quantities of the refuse left after tlio extrac- 
tion of oil fr<^)m fish, are being pii^pared and UR«'d as fertilizers. 

These ought, like the oil-cake, to be first utilized for food. The 
idea, though novel to most farmers, is an old one, and has been 
put into successful practice in many places. In its favor is the 
unanimous testimony of chemical composition, careful experiments, 
and the experience of farmers who have used the materials with 
success. Against it are, the difficult}'^ of jireparing wholesome 
materials, which can be overcome, and the prejudice that only time 
and trial are needed to dispel.* 

The Manuri.m. Values of Nitrogenous Foons 
Is a matter worthy the thoughtful consideration of farmers. 
Nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash are the most valuable 
ingredients of manure. Farmers buy them in the better kinds of 
commercial fertilizers at the rate of from fifteen to thirty cents per 
pound for nitrogen, six to eighteen cents per pound for phosphoric 
acid, and three and a half to nine cents per pou7id for potash. 
Cotton-seed, linseed, and palm-nut meals, bran, dried blood, meat- 
scrap, and fish, are rich in these ingredients. The farmer who 
buys and feeds them accomplishes a double purpose. He is able 
to utilize his poor hay, cornstalks, and straw, at good profit, and, 
what is not a whit less important, all of these valuable materials 
that is not stored in the animal's body, or made into milk, goes into 
the manure. Mr. Lawes has made some calculatif)ns of the money 
values of the manures produced from different foods. This he 
does by assuming that certain percentages of nitrogen, phusphoric 
acid, and potash are consumed and lost, that the rest go into the 
manure, and that they have there about the same value, pound for 
pound, as similar ones in commercial fertilizers in which their 
value is pretty well settled. Thus Mr. Lawes computes the value 
of the manure from one ton of each of the following materials 
to be : 

Cotton-seed cake, ... - $27.86 

Linseed cake, - - - - 19.72 

Brans, ..... 15.73 

* For discussion of the subject, and accounts of numerous feeding experiments 
with these materials, sec article on " Fish in Agriculture," in Report of U. S. 
Fish Commission for 1877. 



168 



Wheat bran, 


14.59 


Clover hay, - .. - . 


9.64 


Indian meal, 


6.63 


Meadow bay, 


6.43 


Oat straw, ... - 


2.90 


Potatoes, .... 


1.50 


Turnips, .... 


.86 


This matter has been much discussed. Dr. Yoelcker considers 



Mr. Lawes' valuations, in general, from thirty to forty per cent, too 
high, and evidently on good grounds.* Of course, the worth of 
the manure is modified by numerous circumstances. Growing or 
fattening cattle or milch cows will retain more of the nitrogen, 
phosphates, etc., from the food and leave less in the manure than 
store cattle. The waste before the manure gets on to the land 
varies in different methods of treatment. But nevertheless the 
figures give a fair idea of the relative values of the manure made 
from different fodder materials. 

Raising Cokn to Make Manure. 
In the experiments with different fertilizers on corn detailed on 
pages 98-106, it appeared that, with the aid of the inexpensive 
mineral fertilizers, the corn crop was able to gather considerable 
nitrogen from natural sources. The yield, with the mixture of 
superphosphate and potash-salts, averaged forty -three bushels of 
shelled corn per acre. The nitrogen gathered by the whole crop, as 
computed, averaged fifty-seven pounds per acre. Now suppose the 
corn to be fed out on the farm. Cotton-seed meal, palm-meal, or 
bran with the stalks will make them as good as first quality hay. 
The same materials are excellent to feed with the corn-meal. In 
this way the corn would gather part of the costly fertilizing ingre- 
dients, and the rest would be bought at very small cost. It seems 
to me this is one of the best possible ways to get good and cheap 
fodder, and good and cheap manure. The argument for corn 
applies with still greater force to clover. We are not yet certain 
as to the capacity of corn to get its food from natural sources, 

* See articles by Mr. Lawes and Dr. Voelcker in the Journal of the Royal 
Agricultural Society. It seems to me that in such calculations the proper way 
would be to estimate the iugredieuts of the indigestible portion at rates similar to 
those at which they can be bought in the markets in crude and insoluble forms, 
and the digestible portions at the commercial values for the soluble and more 
available forms, making, of course, fair allowance for waste in feeding and 
handling. 



164 

l»ut we do know what clover will do. And further, clover is so rich 
in nitrogen that it can be used to make up the lack in other foods 
without buying the oil-meal or bran. 

In Conclusion. 
If the united testimony of the most advanced science and the 
most successful practice is to be accepted, the farmers of our older 
states will do well to seek for more nitrogenous food for their 
stock. For this purpose they may : 

1. Raise more clover, and, where circumstances will allow, 
beans, peas, lucern, and other lognminous plants. 

2. Buy cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, palm-nut meal, bran, 
and other nitrogenous foods. 

3. Mix these rich materials with poor hay, straw, cornstalks, 
and the like, in such proportions as are fitted to the wants of the 
animals and the purposes for which they are fed. 

In these ways farmers can get excellent fodder for their stock, 
and rich manure for their land, at very low cost. 



APPEl^DIX. 



EXPLANATIONS OF CHEMICAL TERMS. 

The following brief explanations will aid those who are unfamiliar with 
chemical terms to a better understanding of the tables which follow : 

Water.^All parts of plants, and those of the animal body as well, contain more 
or less water. The water in feeding-stuffs varies from 80 or 90 lbs. in every 100 
lbs. of young grass or fodder-corn, to only 8 or 10 lbs. to the 100 in dry straw 
or hay. If a piece of wood or wisp of hay be dried some time in a hot oven, 
more or less water will be driven oft". 

Organic substance. — If the dried wood or hay be put in the fire, most of it will 
be burned and carried off" as gas-vapor or smoke. The part thus burned away, 
the combustible portion, is called the organic matter. 

Ash. — The residue, the incombustible portion, or ash, contains the mineral 
matters — that is, potash, lime, phosphoric acid, etc., of the plant. These are 
the most important for the manure. 

But what we have to consider chiefly in foods is the organic, the combustible 
matter. This consists essentially of three kinds of ingredients : albuminoids, 
carbohydrates, and fats. The main point in economical feeding is to secure the 
right proportions of these at the lowest cost. 

Albuminoids; also called protein compounds, "proteids"or "flesh-formers," 
contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen. The nitrogen is their charac- 
teristic ingredient. The name albuminoids comes from albumen, which we 
know very well as the white of eggs, and is found in milk. The fibrin of 
blood and muscle (lean meat), and the casein (curd) of milk-, are also albu- 
minoids. Indeed, the solid parts of blood, nerves, lean meat, gristle, skin, etc., 
consist chiefly of albuminoids. In plants they are equally important. Plant 
albumen occurs in nearly all vegetable juices, especially in potatoes and wheat. 
Casein or legumin is found in beans and peas. Fibrin occurs in the gluten of 
wheat, the basis of what farmer-boys call " wheat gum." Clover, bran, beans, 
peas, oil-cake, and fish and meat-scrap, are rich in albuminoids. That is, they 
contain large proportions of nitrogen. 

Carbohydrates consist of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. They differ from the 
albuminoids in that they have no nitrogen. The most important are starch, 
sugar, and cellulose (woody fibre). They make up a larger part of the solids 
of plants, but are found only in small proportions in the animal body. Potatoes, 
wheat, poor hay, straw, and corn-stalks consist largely of carbohydrates. 
Hence they have very little nitrogen. 

Fats have more carbon than carbohydrates, and, like them, have no nitrogen. 
Fat meat, tallow, lard, fish-oil, and fat (butter) of milk, and linseed oil are 
Himiliar examples of fats. Indian corn, oil-cake, cotton-seed, and linseed, are 
rich in fatty matters. 



160 

I liiive tried to expross concJHely, in tabniar form, some of the most important 
ilemt'ntary facts concerning the composition of the nutritive ingredients of foods; 
the forms in which they occur in j)lant8 and animals, and their offices in nutri- 
tion. As exphiiucd on jjages 144-7, we are as yet not entirely cerfciin as to all the 
ways in which the ingredients do their work in the body. For instance, it now seems 
very prohahie that the carbohydrates are not trausfurnied into fats to any great 
extent, and that the albuminoids arc the main source of mu.scular force ; but future 
investigation may call for some alterations of the.'se views. And it must bo borne 
in mind that an ingredient which does not perform a given function itself, may 
be useful in doing work by which another ingredient may be left free to perform 
that function. For instance,- if carbohydrates, sugar, starch, ^tc., do not make 
fat, they may, by serving for the fuel needed for respiration, leave albuminoids 
and fats free to be made into fat in the body or in the milk. 

ALBUMINOIDS, CARBOHYDRATES, AND FATS. 
ALBUMINOIDS, OR PROTEIN COMPOUNDS, 
Nitrogenous. 
Contain Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen. 
In Plants: — Albdmin; Casein; Fibrin, etc., e.g., in Gluten of Wheat. 
In Animal Body: — Albumin, e. g., Blood serum and white of eggs; Fibrin, 
e. g., in blood and in umscle (lean meat). 
In Milk : — Albumin ; Casein (Curd). 

CARBOHYDRATES 

Non-Nitrogenous. 

Consist of Carbon, Oxygen, and fJydnygm. 
In riants : — Sucar; Starch; Cellulose (in woody fiber.^ 
In Animal Body: — Inosite (Sugar). 
In Milk : — Milk Sugar. 

FATS 

Non-Nitrogenous. 

Consist of Carbon, Oxygen, and Hydrogen. 
In Plants: — Vegetable Fats and Oils, e.g., linseed oil, olive oil. 
In Animal Body : — Fats, e. g., fat meat, tallow, lard, etc. 
In Milk :— Fat (butter). 

USES IN NUTRITION. 
Nutrients 

of Offices in body. 

^'^*^"'*- f [ Albuminoids, e. g., in mnscle, gristle, and 

I '*'■*' casein of milk. 

Albuminoids .' transformed^ Fats, e. g., fat meat, and fat (butter) of milk, 
mto 

I Carbohydrates, e. g., milk sugar. 

^ Serve for Fuel. 
Carbohtdrates serve chiefly for Fuel. 

are trans- ( Fats, c. g., for meat and butter. 



( are trans- ( 
} formed into ( 
f Serve for Fue 



Fats 

Serve for Fuel 



167 

The following table is translated from that given by Wolff, {Mentzel Sj- von 
LengerJce, Landw. Kalender, 1879.) The figures are for European products, 
mostly German. Those for the composition of the plants represent the results 
of many hundreds of analyses. 

Digestible Nutrients. 

The figures for the digestibility of the ingredients are calculated from the 
averages of, I should think, not less than twelve hundred actual feeding trials. 
It is of course understood that only the digestible portions of the food are nutri- 
tious. The digestibility of some of the materials, as Hungarian grass, which 
have not been tested, is calculated from the known digestibility of similar foods. 
The figures obtained for German foods are applied to the corresponding Amer- 
ican products in the succeeding table. 

Nutritive Ratio. 

The " nutritive ratio " expresses the ratio of digestible albuminoids to digestible 
carbohydrates and fats (each pound of fats being assumed equal to 2.5, or, more 
accurately, 2.44 lbs. of carbohydrates). That is to say it shows the number of 
pounds of digestible carbohydrates and fats to each pound of digestible albu- 
minoids. 

The Monet Values of the Foods 

In the table are calculated by assigning a certain price to each pound of digesti- 
ble ingredients. The prices here are those given by Wolff for Germany, in 1879, 
viz., albuminoids and fets each 4^ cents per pound, and carboh3-d rates ^^^ cents 
per pound. They vary a little, but not widely, from the values in many of our 
markets. Of course, these values are relative, and apply only when properly 
fed. Doubtless both the prices-current in our markets, and the intrinsic facts of 
the case would require a revision of these rates to make the valuations correct 
with us. They are not claimed to be absolutely accurate, but they do give a 
general idea of the relative values of the foods.* 

By Meadow Hay is to be understood upland hay, "English grasses," not 
" swale " or " marsh " hay. 

* Dr. Voelcker gives some quite different valuations from these in the Journal of the Royal 
Agricultural Society for 1879, p. 103. It is to be noted that he bases his estimates more upon 
the prevailing impression among practical men, while ^V'olff'l« figures are based more exclu- 
sively on the results of direct experimenting. At the meetiug of the German A'alur/ronc/tir, 
last September a committee of eminent agricultural chemists was appointed to consider the 
matter and recommend a system of valuations. 



168 



avkua(;e composition digestibility and monky value 
of feeding stuffs as given by dr. wolff for ger- 
MANY FOR 1879. 



KIND 

OP 

FODDER. 



I. Hay. 

Meadow Hay, poor, 

» better 

" " medinm, 

" " very good, . . 

" " extra, 

Red Clover, poor 

" " niediuni, 

" " very good,... 

" " t^xtra, 

White Clover, medium, . . . 
Lucerne, medium, 

" very good, 

Swedieh Clover, 

Hop Clover, 

Trefoil 

Seradella 

Fodder Vetch, medium,... 

" " very good,. 

I'ean in bloom, 

Lupine, medium 

" very good, 

Fodder Rye, 

TImotliy 

Italian Hye Grass, 

Englifili Rye (Jrasx, 

French Rye nrass, 

Upland GrasseB, average,. 
Hungarian (JraBs, 

Green Fodder. 



Grass just before bloom,. 

Pasture Grass, 

Rich Pasture (Jrass, 

Italian Rye Grass, 

Knglinh Rye Grass, 

Timothy Grass, 

Upland Grasses, average, 

Fodder Rye, 

Fodder Oats, 

Green Maize, American, 

" " German, 

Sorghum, 

Hungarian, in blossom, 

Pasture Clover, young, 

Red Clover, before blossom. 

" " in full blossom, 

White Clover, in blossom, 

Swedish Clover, at beginning of bios 
som, ." 

Swedish Clover, in full blossom, 

Lucerne, quite young, 

" at beginning of blossom, . . . 

Sand Lucerne, at beginning of blos- 
som, 

Esparsette, 

Trefoil 

Hop Clover, 

Seradella, 

Lupine medium, 

very good, 



7.5.0 
80.0 
78.2 
73.4 
70.0 
70.0 
TO.O 
76.0 
81.0 
85.0 
83.0 
77.3 
75.0 
83.0 
83.0 
80.4 
80.5 

85.0 
82.0 
81.0 
74.0 

78.0 
80.0 
81.5 
80.0 
80.0 
85.0 
85.0 



Organic 
Substance. 



5.0 7.5 
5.4 9.2 
♦i.2 9.7 

7.0 11.7 
7.7 l.'i..'-. 
5.1111.1 
5.3 12.H 



13.5 

15.3 

14.5 

If. 4 

KJ.O 

15.0 

14.0 

12.2 

13 

14.2 

19.8 

14.3 

17. 

23. 

10.4 

9. 

11.2 
10.! 
11.2 

9.5 
10.8 



a3.5 
29.2 
26.3 
21.9 



oo 



38.2 
39.7 
41.4 
41.(1 



19.3 40. I 
28.9' 37.7 
2ti.0|3S.2 
24.01 37.1 
2.2 .'K.H 



a5.(] 
33.0 
2<).( 
7.0 
20.2 
iO.4 
22.0 
25.5 
23.4 
25.2 
28.5 
2.5.2 
23.1 
22.7 

30.2 
29.4 
28.7 
29.4 



C.O 
4.0 
4.0 
7.1 

lO.O 
8.0 

10.1 
7.9 
6.5 
4 

4.4 
6.7 
8, 

2.8 
4.5 
5.S 
6.0 

4 

6.0 
5.0 
9 

8.0 
6.5 
6 2 
6 (I 

H.i 
4.5 



33.9 
27.9 
.31.6 
32.7 

:w.2 

32.6 

:«.6 

32.8 

•28. 

31.2 

30.9 

2K.t: 

44..'- 
45.8 

4o.i: 

36.1 
32.6 
39.1 
38.5 



13.1 
9.7 
10.1 
12.1 
12.8 
16.3 
13.4 
10.4 
8.3 
7.6 
9.3 
11 

10.9 
7.2 
7.0 
8.9 
7.2 

5.1 
6.3 
7.2 
9.2 

7.3 

8.2 
7.3 
8.2 
8.9 
5.7 
5.2 



1.5 

2.0 

2 

2.W 

3.(1 

2.1 

2 

2 

3.2j 

3 

2.5 

2.5 

3.3 

3.3 

3.0 

4. 



DiOESTIBI.K 

NUTUIENTH. 



34.9 

:i6.4 

41.0 

11 

2 12. S 
7 .37.9 

(l[38.1 

5, ;is.2 

7 37.(i 
1 3.5.9 



2.6 
2.2 
2.2 
2.8 



0..^ 

0..S 

1.0 

1.0 

1.0 

1 

1.0 

0.8 

0.5 

0.5 

O.f 

0.1 

0.7| 

0.! 

0.'; 

0.( 

0.8 

0.6 
0.1 
0.6 
0.8 

0.8 
0.6 



6.1 



28.3 
31.4 
34.8 

ai;.4 

:m.9 

36.2 

32.5 

31.1 

.33.1 

.37.3 

3(i.(( 

44.3 

43.4 

41 

35.3 

:{.3.l 

40.9 
41.0 



13.(1 
9.9 
10.9 
12.(; 
I 

16.0 
14.2 
11.0 
8.9 
7.4 
8.4 
11.9 
11.8 
7.4 
7.4 
8.7 
7.9 



55 O^ 



a«l 



0.5 
0.( 

1.0 

1.3 

!..• 

l.( 

1.2 

1 

2.1 

2.( 

1 

1.0 

l..>- 

2.0 

1.4 

2.8 

1.5 

1.4 

l.( 

()."• 

O.l 

1.3 

1.4 

1.4 

0..S 

0.8 

1.1 

0.1* 



0.4 

0.4 

0.6 

0.4 

0.4 

0.5 



0.4 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.3 

0.3 

0.6 

o.n 

0.4 
0.5 



10.6 

8.3 



6.1 



33 
2.8 
4.6 
4. .51 

i; 

5.1 
3.9 
2.3 
4.(1 
3.1 
2.2 
7.2 
8.1 
6.3 



Valtjk. 



S"-" 



^1^ 

oC 



0.48 0.74 
0.86 
(l.(;ri.(KI 
0.7.5 1.17 
■) I .:i2 
I 0.91 
(1.7(1, 1.0^ 
0.79; 1.22 
1. old. 89i 1.39 



l.l.s 
1.10 
1.31 
1.19 
1.27 



5.8 0.4] 

6.9, 0..' 

7.3 0.:: 

9.1 0.31 



0^4 2.'(\ 
0.4|3.1 



0.3 

0.3 

0.3 

5 

0. 

0. 

0.2| 



.0|0.76 

1 

0.86 

0.76 

0.81 

0.(M 1.0( 
0..Sl|l.27 
0.77jl.l9 
;^ O.fflt 1..5.". 
0.77 1.21 
O.hO 1.3.3 
1.10,1.72 
0.72; 1.15 
0.70 1.0i> 
0.74 1.15 
0.57,0.89 
6.3 0.57 0.89 
8.2 0.64,1.00 
7.1 0.66 1.04 



0.22 34 
0.21 0..t1 
0.27,1). 12 
f)|0.23i0..3(i 
(l.20U(.32 
0.2810.42 
0.23, ().•'>'> 



4.6| 
3 



0.20 

0.15 
3 0.11 
9 0.13 

0.19 
() 0.20 

0.25 



0.31 
0.23 
O.IC. 
0.20 
0.29 
0.:50 
0.39 



0.190.29 

0.17 0.26 

a 0.19 0.29 



,3 



0.170.25 

0.1.5i0.24 

.23 0.;«5 

O.23j0.36 

0.21 0.33 
1810.27 
15(1.23 

l.18;o.:iO 
18J0..30 
16 0.2-1 
2010.32 



169 



Field Beans at beffinningof blossom, 
Fodder Vetch at oeginning of blos- 
som, 

Fodder Peas in blossom, 

Buckwheat in blossom, 

Green Rape, 

Fodder Cabbage, 

White Cabbage, 

Cabbage Stems, 

Potato Tops, October, 

Carrot leaves 

Fodder Beet leaves, 

Rutabaga leaves, 

KShl-rabi leaves 

Artichoke Tops, 

Fermented hay from Maize, . . 

" " " Lupine,. 

" " " Beet leaves, . . 

*' " " Potato Tops, 

" " " Red Clover,.. 

III. Straw. 

Winter Wheat, 

Winter Rj'e, 

Winter Barley, 

Summer Barley, 

Oat, 

Summer Graiu Straws medium, . . . 

" " " very good,.. 

Winter " " medium,... 

" " " very good,... 

Fodder Vetch, 

Pea 

Field Bean, , 

Straw of Legumes, medium, , 

" " " very good, 

Lentils, 

Lupine, 

Seed Clover, 

Rape, 

Com Stalks, 

Chapp, Hulls, etc. 

Wheat, 

Rye 

Oats, 

Barley, 

Vetch, 

Pea, 

Bean, 

Lupine, 

Rape, 

Com Cobs, 



Roots and Tubeks. 



Potatoes, 

Artichokes, ... 
Fodder Beets,. 
Sugar Beets,... 

Carrots, 

Giant Carrots,. 

Rutabagas, 

Turnips, 

Parsnips, 



Gbains and Fruits. 



Wheat, 

Rye, 

Barley, 

Oats, 

Maize, 

Millet 

Buckwheat, 

Rice hulled, 

Peas, 

Field Beans, 

Vetch, 

Lentil 



21 



87.3 

82.0 
81.5 
8.5.0 
87.0 
84.7 
89.0 
82.0 
78.0 
82.2 
90.5 

.4 
85.0 
80.0 

5 
79.9 
80.0 
77.0 
79.2 



14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
16.0 
16.0 
16.0 
16.0 
16.0 
16.0 
16.0 
10.0 
16.0 
15.0 



14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
15.0 
15.0 
15.0 
14.3 
14.0 
14.0 



.75.0 
.80.0 
. &S.0 
. 81.5 
.85.0 
.87.0 
. 87.0 
. 92.0 
.88.3 



14.4 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.4 
14.0 
14.0 
14.0 
14 3 
14.5 
14.3 
14.5 



9.2 

7.5 
10.0 
13.0 
8.0 
6.0 
5.5 
3.6 
8.5 
2.8 



2.8 3.5 5.1 0.3 2.0 5.2 0.2 2.8 0.140.22 



40.0 
0'44.0 
343.0 
5 40.0 
39.5 



.39.7 
36.7 
42.0 
37.8 
42.0 
38.0 
34.0 
38.0 
34.5 
33.6 
40.8 
49.0 
40.0 
40.0 



4.3 
3.6 
4.0 
3.0 
8.5 
8.1 
10.5 
4.5 
4.0 
1.4 



13.0 
11.0 
10.0 
12.0 
10.0 
12.7 
9.0 
7.7 
22.4 
25^5 
27.5 
23.8 



36.0 
43.5 
34.0 
30.0 
33.0 
32.0 
33.0 
37.0 
40.6 
37.8 



6.6 

7.0 
6.4 
3.7 
8.1 
5.9 
11.9 
9.7 
7.1 
4.0 
5.2 
8.2 
9.8 
8.0 
6.5 
9.0 
7.5 
6.4 



36.9 
33.3 
32.5 
36.7 
36.2 
3 .4 
32.9 
34.9 
36.7 
29.0 
31.0 
.34.2 
32.4 
33.2 
27.9 
32.1 
25.0 
4 
36.7 



34.6 
29.9 
36.2 
38.2 
.33.5 
36.9 
34.0 
39.0 
31.3 
42.6 



20.7 
15.5 
9.1 
15.4 
10.8 
9.6 
9.5 
5.3 
10.2 



66.4 
67.4 
63.9 
55.7 
62.1 
57.5 
58.7 
75.2 
52.5 
45.9 
45.8 
49.2 



0.6 

0.6 

0.6 

0.6 



0.4 

0.3 

1.0 

1.0 

0.5 

0.5 

0.8 

0.8 

0.9 

0.8 

1.2 

2.6 

2.2 



1.2 

1.3 

1.4 

1.4 

2.0 

1 

2.5 

i.a 

1.4 
1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
2.0 
1.1 
2.0 
1.0 
1.0 



1.4 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2.0 

2.0 

1.7 

1. 

1. 



1.511 

2.0 9 

2.5 

6.0 

6.5 

3.3 9 

1.5 

0.4 

2.0 



6.7 

7.4 
6.6 
4.8 
8.2 
6.0 
11 
8.3 
7.0 
4.0 
5.1 
7.6 
9.4 
8.6 
7.0 
6.3 
6.2 
7.2 



8 35.6 
8 36.5 
8 31.4 
40.6 
40.1 
40.4 
.36.9 
36.0 
34.3 
31.9 
33.4 
35.2 
33.5 
34 6 
30 
41.6 
28.5 
35.0 
37.0 



6. 

20.2 
1.623.0 

24.8 
2.6 21.4 



32.8 
34.9 
36.6 
35.0 
34.3 
36.2 
34.7 
44.2 
33.4 
41.7 



21.8 
16.8 
10.0 
16.7 
12 
10.8 
10.6 
6.1 
11.2 



61.3 
65.4 
58.9 
43.3 
60.6 
45.0 
47.0 
72.7 
54.4 
50.2 
48.2 
51.2 



0.3 
0.3 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.2 
0.2 
0.3 
0.5 
0.2 
0.3 
0.4 
0.4 
0.412 



0.3" 
0.7 
1.3 
1.7 



0.4 



0.4 46.9 



0.4 40.5 



0.532.20. 



0.6t 




0.4 
0.5 
0.5 
0.5 
0.5 
0.6 
1.2 
0.3 
1.0 



1.2 

1.6 

1.7 

4 

4.8 

2.6 

1.2 

0.3 

1 

1.4 

2.5 



0.18 
0.18 
0.14 
90.15 
2 0.17 
80.11 
0.15 
0.13 

8 0.18 
70.10 

9 0.12 
0.17 

2 0.19 
0.13 
2 0.15 
00.17 
0.16 
10.26 



29.9 
31.01) 
0.8 15.5 1) 
0.4 46.3 11 
29.4 0. 
9.8 
12.0 1) 
7.31) 
9.7 
7.2J0 
4.70 
19.4 
7.4 
0.5I25.9K) 
0.3 3i.4|0 



0.4 24.10 
0.4 32.6 
0.6 23.8 
0.6|30.4 
8.9 



0. 

9.80 

40 



1.21 

1 

1.2 

0.5i6.7|0 

0.7 17.2 

0.4 71.2 



7.3 



7.90. 
6.1 
8.61 
5.4 

7.4 



10.7 
2.9 
2.31 
2.21 
2.21 3.611 



10.6 0.29 
8.70.24 
9.30.14 

17.0 0.19 

9.3 0.18 

9.4 0.16 
8.3 0.15 
5.80.11 



0.18 



5.81.13 
7.0 



0.28 
0.27 
0.22 
0.23 
0.26 
0.17 
0.23 
0.20 
0.28 
0.15 
0.19 
0.27 
0.29 
0.20 
0.23 
0.27 
0.26 
0.41 



0.57 
0.55 
0.51 
0.6S 
0.69 
0.69 
0.73 
0.58 
0.58 
0.71 
0.69 
0.86 
0.75 
0.S6 
0.98 
0.74 
0.75 
0.61 
0.61 



0.57 
0.58 
0.61 
0.60 
0.84 
0.85 
0.83 
0.76 
O.CA 
0.64 



0.46 
0.38 
0.22 
0.30 
0.28 
0.24 
0.24 
0.16 
28 



1.76 
1.68 
1.47 
1.53 
1.73 
1.45 
1.19 
1.49 
3.25 
2.36 
2.53 
2.32 



170 



Lupino 'yellow, 

^' blue , 

Lliipced, 

Itape neiid. 

Ileinp seetl, 

I'oppy Heed, 

Cottnii Kocd, 

I'nlin eii'i'd, 

("hinoMf Oil Bean, 

AconiH IVes'li 

" halfclried, 

" Hhelled und dried, 

riicstiuifw frcnh, 

AppleH and Pears, 

Cow melons, 

PumpkhiH, 



13.3 
13.2 
1:2.3 
11.8 
12.2 
14.7 
7 7 
7.6 
6.9 
6.3 
37.7 
17.0 
49.2 
83.1 
91.4 
89.1 



IV. Manufacturing and Wahtk 
Products, etc. 

Sugar Beet Cake, 

Residue, Centrifugnl process, 

Clarifying refuse frenli, 

" " fermented, 

" " pressed and fer- 
mented, 

Sugar Beet Molasses, 

Molasses slump, 

Potato slnmp, 

Hye slump, 

Maize slump 

Potato, I Kesidue from 1 

Rye, -J Manufacture of J- 

Wheat, (starch, ) 

Brewers' Grains, 

Malt sprouts, 

Green mall with sprouts, 

Ground malt without sprouts, 

\Vlieat Bran fine, 

" " coarse, 

Rye Bran, 

Wheat meal, 

Maize Bran , 

Buckwheat Bran, 

Pea Bran (Hulls), 

Pea meal, 

Pea bran meal, 

Mill<-t Hulls, 

Barley Bran, 

Rice meal, 

Rice Bran (Hulls), 

Rape cake, 

Rape meal (extracted), 

Linseed Cake, 

Linseed meal (extracted), 

Poppy seed Cake, 

Hempseed Cake, 

Beech nut Cake, 

" " shelled, 

Walnut Cake, 

Almond Cake, 

Chinese Oil Bean Cake, 

Olive oil Cake, 

Sun flower seed Cake, 

Palm nut Cake, 

" (extracted), 

Cocoanut Cake, ... 

Cotton-seed Cake, , 

Cotton-seed Cake, decorticated, 

Pumpkin seed cake, 

Flesli meal, 

Norwegian Pish Guano, 

Dried Blood 

Cockchafers, fresh, 

" dried, 

Cow's Milk, 

Skimmed Milk, 

Butter Milk 

Condensed Milk, 

Whey 

Cream, 



TO.O 
82.0 
94.8 
92.0 



9 
11, 

8.5 
12 

9 
11 

9, 
16 
12 
13 

9 

13. 
13 
10 
10 
10 

9 

n 

11 
12. 
11. 
12. 
12 
70 
13 
87. 
90. 
90, 
21 



3.8 36 

3.2I2I 

3.4[20 

8.919 

4.5il6 

6.3|17 

7. 8122 

1.8 8 

4.6^38 

l.ol 2 

1.61 

2.0 



2I13.8 
KI12.5 

5' 7.2 

4 10.3; 

312.1 
6.1 
16.0 
6.0 
.5.3 
4.4 



4 


5 
9 
8.0 

i7.1 
8.0 

23 

13 


14 

10 
6 

31 

33 

29 

33 

31 

29 

18 

37 

*t 

41 

40 

'6 

37 

16 

IS 

20 



28.0 4 
41.71 4 
19.6 37 

12.1 12 
2l.3:« 
15.441. 
15.4:10 
2(1.8 49 
26.218. 
34. S t. 
16.6 
67.4 
41.3 
11.8 

5.2 
6.5 



0.9 
1.0 
1.0 
2.0 
2.7 
3.4 
5.2 
14.3 
4.3 
8 

8.7 
10.1 
5.7 
4.8 
12.5 
14.7 
43 
4.5 
31.1 
57.6 
19.4 
11.1 
25 
11.0 
13.4 
9 

8.8 
11.5 
24.7 
23.9 
5.6 
6.4 



AM. 441. 8 4 
6 23.664.2 4 
0ll7.218.9j35 
15.510.2 10 
1-J 'J16.2:«) 
17 2 15.3139 
17.1 14.7 27 
o:jl.a jts 



18.3 
12.1 
3.3 

4.8 



8.9-20 
5.5 27 



33.4 
9.9 
17.4 
20.2 
14 2 
22. 
'92 
4.9 



;j.9' 



0.2 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 

0.3 



0.2 
0.3 
1.0 
0.1 
1.5 
2.2 
1.1 
2.1 
1.5 
2.3 
■i.> 
3.5 

4.r 
3.; 

4.( 

4.4| 



2.5| 
3.£ 
II 
4E 
4.1 
9.il 
3. 
9 
3. 
9 

2.:; 
8. 
6.5 
8.3 
7..' 
12.f 
lo.i 



i:).2 

8.4 
10.( 

3.;; 

12.f 

6 1 
13. 
11. 
12. 

1. 



3 
10 

3.6 

0.7 

l.( 
12 

O.C 
31.81 



*i.5 28.:j 

a. (130 9 
:;.'.8 11.9 
4.1 59.7 
3.135.7 
0.342.9 
0.9 5.6 

0.4 7.; 



24.6 

16 
4.3 
6.4 

11.0 

(M 
4.6 
5.8 
5.4 
5.4 



0.813.7 
5.2!l8.1 
15.1 
10.8 
45.0 
5.2 36.9 
67.2 



26 



11.8 
12.6 
12.2 
10.8 

6.2 
13.5 

5.6 
20.9 

9.2 

4.5 
11.5 

8.6 

4.2 
25.3 
.5 
24.8 
27.8 
26.8 
20.9 
13.5 
31.2 
31.1 
37.2 
3ti.3 

3.6 
31.3 
16.1 
17.6 
18.2 
17 
31.0 
0.0 
9.2 
4.1 
4.1 
13.0 

.0 
3.2 
3.5 

S.O 
10.2 



9 38 



44.4 
42.7 
46 
54.0 
55.0 
44.0 
46.3 
55.4 
45.8 
38.8 
43.2 
47.2 
42.S 
2;i.8 
27.2 
27.5 
33.9 
2.5.4 
17.4 
22.2 
25.5 
28.2 
'i3.0 
29.1 
32 
24 
55.4 
60.4 
47.4 
14.9 
18.3 
9 



0.2 
0.1 
1 
1 

:^ 



3.9 
2 
2.8 
1.2 



i (10 3.23 

1 72 2 68 
17 3.K5 

2.653.97 

2 013.13 
2.-50 3.85 

(18 3.24 

75 4.28 

2..V> 1.00 

43 0.67 

59 0.!tO 

t K5I.32 

1. 52 0.81 

) 13 0.20 

(MI0.14 

08 0.13 



2 I) 



I3.9I).30'0.47 



16.(1 
9.1 
8.3 

7 f 
8.1 
2.6 
4.2 
3.5 
4.6 



4.1 



3 11.3' 



.•i.4 
2.5 

9^4 
4.4 
3.9 
4.5 

l'o!3 
4.0 
9.2 



10.1 
.61 4.f 

8 8.0 
;3 11.5 
.7 1.7 

4 1.:: 



1 4 
1 
2I 1.5 

61 2.>s 
1.4 
l.S 



U.l 



I 19 0.29 

(NIO.IO 

1.100.15 



t.l8 0. 
1.921 
1.12 0. 
).13,0 
14|0 

i5;o 

IK. 
1.44 



0.»l 
1.32 

till 

1 (HI 
].(H;i. 
1.04 1. 
l.lOll. 
1.118 1 
0.92 1. 
1.15]1, 
0.741 

3.0(1.53 2, 
5.:^0.8(ll 
0.661 
l.(Vtl 
l.KVl 
0.6(!:l 

l.()(j;2 

1.512 



9 2.0 1.72 2 



1.61|2 

1.732 

1.30 

1.08 

l.tKt 

■>.n 



].6|2.14 
1 
16.5 
1.3 
4.9 
3, 
4.1 
1 
1.61 



2.15 
91 
1.93 

i.(;i 

l.+l 
1.692 
1. 14! 

2.07|3 

>.744 

0.4|H..54|5 



i.013 
■•«i3 
71!1 



0.6 
0.(; 2 (li 
4.4 I). 310. 
1.9 
2 6 
8.3 1 



).22 
18 
6.(10.11 



171 



COMPOSITION AND VALUATIONS OF AMEEICAN FEEDING STUFFS. 

The followiuff table contains the analyses of some of the feeding stuffs reported in pages 
23-39 and 15y-lGl, with valuations as in the German table just preceding. It includes likewise 
a number of analyses by Professors Storer and Johnson, and Mr. Sharpless. 



FEEDING STUFFS, 



Green Fodder. 

Norfolk White Maize 

XXI. Southern White Maize.. 



XXIV. Hungarian Grass— early in bios, 

XX\". " " in full bios.. 

Hat. 

XIII. Timothy— well headed out 

XIV'^. '■ in full blossom 

XV. "■ out of blossom 

XVI. " nearly ripe 

XVir. Red Clover— just before bios.. . 
XVm. " iu full blossom.... 

XIX. '• nearly out of bios, 

XX. " nearly ripe 

XXIV. Hungarian— heads partly filled . 

XXV. " heads devel., seeds soft. 

XXVI. '■ nearly ripe 

Norfolk White Maize 

XXI. Southern White Maize 

Salt Mar.sh Hat. 

Better quality mixed 

Black Grass 

Rush Salt Grass 

Coarse Salt Marsh Grass 

Fresh Marsh Hat. 

Bog Hay— cut in June 

" " August 

Weeds. 
Whiteweed (Ox-Eye Daisy).. 

Buttercups 

Beach Pea Vines 

Straw akd Cobs. 

XXXIV. Oat 

XLII. Rye 

Buckwheat 

XXXm. Corn Cobs 

Gr.vins and Fruits. 

XII. Barley Feed 

XI. Rice Feed 

XXIX. Oats, No. 1, White 

XXXI. Oats 

XXXII. Corn, N. E. Yellow, 8-rowed. 
C. " King Philip 

" Mass. White Flint 

" Mass. Red Flint 

A. " Early Button 

" Sweet 

XL. " Western YeUow 

XLI. " Southern White 

XXVIII. Apples 

Milling and Waste Products. 

Coarse Wheat Bran 

Wheat Middlings 

LVI. Corn Starch Feed 

LVII. Brewers' Grains 

St. Louis Ship Stuff 

XXXVII. Rye Bran 

Malt Sprouts 

Oil-Cake and Meai.. 

XXVn. Linseed Cake 

XLV. Cotton Seed Meal 

XL VIII. Palm Nut Meal 

Slaughter-House Waste. 

XLTTT, XLIX. Dried Blood 

XLIV. .Moat Scrap , 

XLVII. Ground Dried Flesh 

Fish Waste. 
L. Dry Ground Fish 



p.c 

85.-; 

85.7 

5.0 

75.0 

12.5 

12 

12.5 

12.5 

14.3 

14.3 

14.3 

14.3 

16.7 

16.7 

16.7 

25.0 

25.0 

10.0 
10.0 
10.0 
12.5 

10.0 
10.0 

10.9 

8.2 
7.9 

12.5 
12.5 
10.4 
12.1 



9.9 
15.1 
11.2 
12.4 
12.7 

9.8 
10.2 
12.0 

8.1 
10.8 
13.0 
12.7 
83.3 



11.4 
11.8 
73.2 
75.2 
11.8 
12.9 
11.6 

9.1 
7.3 
7.9 

7.2 
4.2 
8.3 

12.5 



p.c. 
0.8 
1.1 
2.2 
1.3 

4.1 

.3.8 
3.6 
3.2 
7.3 
6.6 
6.3 
5.6 
7.2 
4.3 
5.3 
5.5 
4.3 

6.9 
.5.1 
6.6 
10.8 

6.2 
5.4 

6.4 
5.2 
7.0 

1.8 
8.0 
5.1 
1.3 



Organic 

Substances. 



p.c. 
0.9 
1.3 
3.2 
2.4 

8.4 
6.2 
6.2 
5.5 
12.2 
11.6 
11.3 
8.9 
10.7 
8.0 
5.7 
9.9 
4.5 

7.3 
6.7 
4.6 
5.3 

9.6 
6.7 

7.0 
10.7 
23.3 

2.3 
6.9 
3.9 
1.2 

12.7 
9.3 

11.5 
8.0 

10.0 

11.9 
9.2 

12.1 
9.6 

11.4 
8.9 
9.7 
0.3 

12.9 
11.4 
3.6 
5.9 
11.1 
12.6 
25.9 

.33.4 
41.5 
13.5 

63.0 
47.3 
67.4 

49.6 



p.c. 
4.9 
4.6 

8.7 
8,3 

38.9 
29.1 
29.6 
.31,0 
23.8 
23.8 
25,6 
27.2 
28.9 
27,6 
29.9 
24.3 
25.7 

33.1 
.33.7 
33.8 
30.6 

32.8 
32.8 



5 S 



p.c, 
7.4 
7.1 
10.5 
12.6 

44.4 
46.6 
46.6 
45.7 
41.1 
41.7 
41.0 
43.0 
34.8 
41.9 
41.9 
37.3 
39.1 

40.8 
4.3.2 
44.3 
.38.3 

39.3 
42.7 



31.0 42.3 
30.7 41.6 
29.4 27.6 



60.0 
34 2 
45.9 
38.0 

7.0 
8.1 
12.2 
12.9 
1.7 
2.2 
1.5 
3.0 
3.5 
3.8 
3.0 
1.8 
0.9 

8.1 
4.8 
.3.4 
.3.9 
5.6 
3.5 
9.3 

7.3 
3.1 

18.8 



26.4 
.35.7 
33.3 
51.7 

63.5 
59.9 
57.8 
59.0 
69.3 
70.1 
74.3 
69.5 
72.6 
64.3 
(0.8 
70.4 
15.0 

59.1 
66.8 
18.8 
13.2 
.5 
67.0 
45.5 

31.5 
34.4 
41.1 



Digestible 
Nutrients. 



p.c. 

7.4 

7.6 

11.5 

11.0 

43.6 
39.9 
39.9 
40.3 
38.8 
38.5 
38.8 
39.2 
38.3 
36.7 
37.6 
40.0 
38.9 

38.7 
40.3 
40.5 
36.3 



2.1 4.8 .38.4 
2.4 3.4 40.0 



1.0 
2.7 
1.6 
0.1 

3.2 
1.6 
5.1 
4.7 
4.9 
4.5 
3.4 
3.4 
5.7 
7.7 
4.1 
4.1 
0.4 

.3.5 
2.9 
2.0 
1.5 
2.8 
3.3 
1.1 

11.6 
18.0 
14.8 

6.4 
2.1 
6.5 

9.5 



0.8 
1.6 

9 

o!6 

10.1 
7.3 
8.7 
6.0 
8.4 

10.0 
7.7 

10 1 
8.1 
9.6 
7.5 
8.2 
0.3 

10.0 

8.9 
3 2 
4.8 
8.7 
106 
30.8 

27,6 
33.2 
13.9 

42.2 
45.0 
64.1 

44.6 



38.7 
37.1 

44.9 

57.1 
491 
43.3 
44.3 
65.8 
66 
70.3 
66.0 
3 
61.8 
67.3 
66.8 
13.7 

48.5 
54.8 
19,3 
11.3 
54.5 
50.0 
43.7 

27.0 
17.6 
56 



.3.1 

2.6 

1 

1.2 

2.5 

2.3 

0.9 

10.4 
16.2 
14.0 

5.7 
2.0 
6.0 

8.6 



1: 

14,9 
9.2 
6 
9.4 

10.4 
13.2 
13.6 
15.3 
6.1 
6.9 
7.1 
10.3 
6.7 
9.4 
14.1 
9.2 
14.9 

11.1 
13.5 
19.1 
15.0 

8.3 
12.4 



MONBT 

Value. 



49.4 
34.8 

75.0 

6.2 

7.3 
6.2 
8.9 
8.6 
7.5 
9.9 
7.2 
9.9 
8.0 
10.0 
9.2 

ro.8 

5.6 
6.9 
7.4 
3.0 
7.0 
5.3 
2.3 

2.0 
1.8 
7.3 

0.3 
0.1 
0.3 

0.5 



10.09 
0.11 
0.19 
0.16 

0.62 
0.52 
0.51 
0.50 
0.67 
0.64 
0.63 
0.56 
0.64 
0.53 
0.48 
0.58 
0.49 

0.54 
0.54 
0.48 
0.47 

0.58 
0.54 



0.40 
0.44 

0.42 

1.05 
0.82 
0.94 
0.82 
1.09 
1.18 
1.00 
1.07 
1.16 
1.19 
1.04 
1.09 
0.13 

1.01 
1.00 
0.39 
0..36 
0.97 
1.00 
1.33 

1.89 
2.30 
1.67 



2.03 
3.04 



2.30 



172 



FEEDING STANDARDS. 



The feeding standards herewith .ire as piven by Woltf, (M. & v. L. Landw. 
Kalfndnr, 1879.) By total orjranic siibstan<«' is meant the orf,'anic matter of 
the whole ration considered free from water and jish. For further explanations 
see preceding pages. 



A.— Pen Day anh peu 1.()00 lbs. Livi; 
Wkigiit. 

1. Oxen at rest in stall 

2. Wool shet'p, coarser breeds, 

" tlner breeds 

3. O.xen iiiodfrutely worked, 

" heavily worked 

4. Ilorees niodenitely worked, 

" heavily worked, 

.'j. Mik'li I'owi* 

6. Fattening oxen, 1st period, 

" 2d " 

" M " 

7. Fattening sheep, Ist period, 

2<1 " 

8. Fattening swine, 1st Period, 

2d " 

" 3d " 

9. Growing cattle: 

Average live weight 
Age, Dionths. per head. 

2—3 150 lbs., 

S—G 300 " 

6—12 500 '• 

12—18 700 " 

18—24 850 " 

10. Growing sheep : 

5—6 501bs., 

(>— 8 07 " 

8—11 75 " 

11—15 82 " 

15—20 85 " 

II Growing, fat pigs : 

2—3 50 lbs., 

3—5 100 " 

5—6 125 " 

6—8 170 " 

8—12 250 " 

B.— Per Day and peb Head. 
Growing cattle : 

2—3 150 lbs., 

3—6 »)0 " 

6—12 500 " 

12-18 700 " 

18—24 850 " 

Growing sliccp: 

5-6 56 lbs., 

6-8 67 " 

8—11 75 " 

11-15 82 " 

1.5—20 85 " 

Growing, fat swine : 

2—3 50 lbs 

3—5 100 " 

5-6 125 " 

6—8 170 " 

8-12 260 " 



2-3 



Ibt;. 

17.5 
20.0 
22.5 
24.0 
26.0 
22.5 
25.5 
24.0 
27.0 
26.0 
25.0 
26.0 
25.0 

36.0 
31.0 
2.3.5 



22.0 
2:^.4 
24.0 
24.0 
24.0 

28.0 
25.0 
2:10 
22.5 
22.0 

42.0 
34.0 
:«.5 
27.0 
21.0 



3.3 

7.0 

12.0 

16.8 

20.4 

1.6 
1.7 
1.7 
1.8 
1.9 

2.1 
3.4 
3.9 
4.6 
5.2 



Nutritive (di^'cstiblc) 
substances. 






lbs. 

0.7 
1.2 
1.5 
1.6 
2.4 
1.8 
2.8 
2.5 
2.5 
3.0 
2.7 
3.0 
3.5 

5.0 
4.0 

2.7 



4.0 
3.2 
2.5 
2.0 
1.6 

3.2 
2.7 
2.1 
1.7 
1.4 

7.5 
5.0 
4.3 
3.4 
2.5 



0.6 
1.0 
1.3 
1.4 
1.4 

0.18 
0.17 
0.16 
0.14 
0.12 

0..38 
0.50 
0.54 
0.58 
0.62 






lbs. 

8.0 
10.3 
11.4 
11.3 
13.2 
11.2 
13.4 
12.5 
1.5.0 
14.8 
14.8 
15.2 
14.4 



lbs. 

0.15 
0.20 
0.25 
0.30 
0.,'50 
060 
0.80 
0.10 
0.50 
0.70 
60 
0.50 
0.60 



27.5 
24.0 
17.5 



13.8 
13.5 
1:^.5 
13.0 
12.0 

15.6 
1.3.3 
11.4 
10.9 
10.4 



2.0 
1.0 
0.6 
0.4 
0.3 

0.8 
06 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 



30.0 
25.0 
23.7 
20.4 
16.2 



2.1 
4.1 
68 
9.1 
10.3 

0.S7 
0.85 
0.&5 
0.89 
0.88 



0.30 
O.:30 

o.m 

0.28 
0.26 

0.045 
0.040 
0.037 
0.0.32 
0.025 



1.50 
2.50 
2.96 
3.47 
4.05 



lbs. 

8.85 
11.70 
13.15 
13.20 
16.10 
13.(UI 
17.0(1 
15 40 
18.00 
1S..50 
18.10 
18.70 
18.50 

.32.50 
28.00 
20.20 



19.8 
17.7 
16.6 
15.4 
13.9 

19.6 
16.6 
14.0 
13.0 
12.1 

37.5 
30.0 

28.0 
23.8 
18.7 



3(H) 

5.40 

8.40 

10.78 

11.96 

1.095 
1.060 
1.047 
1.062 
1.047 

1.88 
3.00 
3.50 
4.05 
4.67 



173 



FODDER RATIONS. 

Mr. Jordan has made use of the feeding standards and analyses just given 
in calculating the following rations for various farm animals. It is not meant 
that just these proportions must he used. The important thing is to mix the 
foods on hand or to be bought so as to secure the best result at the lowest cost. 
These are simply examples of mixtures that contain the nutrients in about the 
proportions believed to be best adapted to the purpose. I cannot give what seems 
to me the right view of this system of calculating food rations, better than 
in the words of a shrewd and intelligent Gfrm.an farmer, in answer to a ques- 
tion as to what he thought of them : "As indications of what is best, they are 
invaluable ; to follow them blindly would be folly." 

DAILY RATIONS FOR 1,000 LBS. LIVE WEIGHT. 
A. Maintenance Fodder for full grown, labor-free Oxen. 



lbs. 
5 


1 
Clover hay, best, 
Wheat straw. 
Linseed cake. 


lbs. 

6 
12 

2 


2 

Medium meadow hayj 
Oat straw, 
Coarse bran. 


lbs. 

, 6 

17 

4 


3 
Poor Timothy, 
Corn stalks. 
Corn meal. 


lbs. 
25 
20 

1 


4 

Oat straw, 
Potatoes, 
Cotton-seed meal. 


lbs. 

10 

20 

2 


5 
Poor Timothy, 
Sugar beets. 
Corn meal. 


lbs. 
6 
15 


6 
Clover hay, best. 
Oat straw. 




B. Fodder 


FOR Oxen at moderate 


work. 


lbs. 
20 


7 
Good meadow hay. 
Corn meal. 


lbs. 

20 
2 
4 


8 
Medium Timothy, 
Coarse bran, 
Corn meal. 


lbs. 

12 

13 

3 


9 
Good meadow hay, 
Oat straw, 
Linseed cake. 


lbs. 
12 
10 
22 


10 
Clover hay, best. 
Rye straw. 
Potatoes. 


lbs. 
12 
10 
7 


11 

Clover hay, good, 
Wheat straw. 
Wheat bran. 


lbs. 
10 
14 
20 

1 


12 

Clover hay, best. 
Oat straw. 
Mangolds, 
Cotton-seed meal. 



lbs. 13 

20 Best meadow hay, 

10 Corn meal. 



C. Fodder for Oxen at severe work. 
lbs. 14 lbs. 



14 

17 Clover, good, 
3 Wheat bran, 
10 Corn meal. 



15 



25 Medium meadow hay, 
3 Wheat bran, 
3 Linseed cake. 



D. Winter fodder for Milch Cows. 



lbs. 16 

20 Best meadow hay, 

5 Wheat Bran, 

3 Palm nut meal, 

lbs. 19 

10 Clover hay, best, 

1 5 Poor Timothy, 

20 Turnips, 

3^ Linseed cake. 

lbs. 22 

10 Best meadow hay, 

15 Wheat straw, 

5 Wheat bran, 

3i Cotton-seed meal. 



lbs. 


17 


lbs. 


18 


20 


Good clover. 


17 


Best meadow hay, 


20 


Beet pulp, 


16 


Corn stalks, 


2 


Cotton-seed meal. 


3 


Wheat bran, 






2 


Cotton-seed meal. 


lbs. 


20 


lbs. 


21 


20 


Hungarian hay, 


20 


Clover hay, best. 


20 


Mangolds, 


H 


Wheat bran, 


3 


Wheat bran, 


50 


Turnips. 


2 


Linseed cake. 







lbs. 23 lbs. 

20 Clover hay, medium, 20 

30 Mangolds, 30 

4 Malt sprouts. 6 



24 
Clover hay, best, 
Turnips, 
Corn meal. 



ot 



174 



Fodder fok Gkowino Cattle, one to two yeaus old. 



lbs. 


25 


lbs. 26 


Ibx. 


27 


15 


Medium meadow hay 


, 20 Oat straw, 


15 


Medium meadow ha; 


18 


live straw, 


."JO Turnips, 


20 


Corn Stalks, 


2 


Cottonseed meal. 


.5 Wh.'at bran, 

2 Cotton-seed meal. 


>f 


Meat scrap. 


U>8. 


28 


Ihs. 29 


Ib.t. 


30 


10 


Good clover, 


20 Poor meadow hay. 


20 


Good mca<low hay, 


lU 


Oat straw, 


20 Potatoes, 


20 


Mangolds, 


8 


Corn stalks. 


1^ Dry ground fish. 


5 


Coarse Wheat bran. 


2 


Cotton-seed meal. 










G. Fodder for Fattening < 


[;!attle. • 


lbs. 


31 


lbs. 32 


/6s. 


33 


22 


Clover hay, best, 
Corn meal. 


20 Medium meadow hay 


, 20 


Good meadow hay, 


8 


10 Oat straw, 


100 


Pumpkins, 






30 Mangolds. 


H 


Cotton-sccd meal. 






3^ Cotton-seed meal. 






Ihs. 


34 


lbs. 35 


lbs. 


.•J6 


•_'0 


Best meadow hay, 


22 Pest meadow hay, 


15 


Clover liiiy, best. 


;jo 


Su}j;ar-bpct pulp, 


50 Turnips, 


10 


Barley straw. 


2 


Linseed cake. 


5 Corn meal. 


40 
3 


Mangolds, 
Linseed cake. 



Fodder for Sheep, proddcing wool. 



lbs. 


37 


lbs. 


38 


lbs. 


39 


15 


Clover hay, good, 


10 


Medium hay, 


20 


Pea straw. 


10 


Poor hay, 


15 


Bean straw, 


20 


Potatoes, 


3 


Oats. 


4 


Corn. 


2 


Cotton-seed meal. 


lbs. 


40 


lbs. 


41 


/6s. 


42 


20 


Oat straw, 


10 


Best clover, 


20 


Poor meadow hay, 


30 


Mangolds, 


10 


Barley straw, 


6 


Clover hay, best, 


li 


Dried flesh. 


H 


Fish scrap. 


4 


Corn. 



